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on the frontiers of Lorn in Argyleshire. At first it receives the name of the Fillan. After a winding course of eight or nine miles it spreads itself out into Loch Dochart, and, under the appellation of the Dochart, flows in an easterly direction through the vale of Glendochart, at the eastern extremity of which, having previously received the waters of the Lochy, it expands into the beautiful long narrow lake, called Loch Tay. Issuing thence, it speedily receives a great augmentation by the river Lyon, and running north and east at Logierait, about eight miles above Dunkeld, it is joined by the Tummel. It now takes a direction more towards the south to Dunkeld, where, on its right bank, it receives the beautiful river Bran. On leaving Dunkeld, it runs east to Kinclaven, and after receiving a considerable augmentation to the volume of its waters by the accession of the Isla, the Shochie, and the Almond, it flows in a south-westerly course to Perth. At the foot of the vale of Strathearn, it receives on its right bank its last great tributary, the Earn, and, gradually expanding its waters, it flows in a north-easterly direction past Newburgh, where it assumes the appearance of a firth or estuary. Ten miles from the German Ocean it passes Dundee, and finally unites its waters to the sea, between Tentsmoor Point and Buttonness. The Tay is celebrated for its salmon fisheries, the value of which is between £10,000 and £11,000 per annum. The river is navigable for vessels of 400 tons burden, as far as Perth, thirty-two miles from the German Ocean. Its drainage is 2283 square miles, and its mean discharge below the junction of the Earn has been ascertained by Mr. David Stevenson to be 273,117 cubic feet per minute. That of the Thames is stated at only 80,220 cubic feet per minute, or less than onethird that of the Tay.

The Spey is the most rapid of the Scottish rivers, and, next to the Tay, discharges the greatest quantity of water. It has its source in Loch Spey, within about six miles of the head of Loch Lochy. It runs in a north-easterly direction through Badenoch and Strathspey to Fochabers, below which it falls into the Moray Firth, at Garmouth. During its course, it receives numerous mountain streams, but no important tributary. From its source to its mouth, the distance is about seventy-five miles; but following its windings, its course is

about ninety-six miles. Owing to the origin and course of its tributary waters, the Spey is very liable to sudden and destructive inundations. It flows through one of the best wooded parts of the Highlands, and affords a water-carriage for the produce of the extensive woods of Glenmore and Strathspey, large quantities of which are floated down to the seaport of Garmouth. It drains 1234 square miles. The salmon fishing in this river is of great value.

The Clyde, the most important river in Scotland, has its origin in the highest part of the southern mountain land, at no great distance from the sources of the Tweed and the Annan. It flows at first in a northerly direction with a slight inclination to the east as far as Biggar. Being joined by the Douglas, near Harper-field, it takes a north-west course by Lanark, Hamilton, and Glasgow, falling into the Firth of Clyde below Dumbarton. Following its windings, the course of the Clyde, from its source to Dumbarton, is about seventy-three miles, but the length of the river, in a direct line, is only about fifty-two miles. Its principal tributaries are the Douglas, Nethan, Avon, Mouse, Kelvin, Cart, and Leven. The extent of its drainage, exclusive of the Leven, is 945 square miles. Of the celebrated falls of the Clyde, two are above, and two below Lanark; the uppermost is Bonnington Linn, the height of which is about thirty feet; the second fall is Cora Linn, where the water dashes over the rocks in three distinct leaps; Dundaff Fall is ten feet high, and at Stonebyres there are three distinct falls, altogether measuring about seventy-six feet in height. At high water the Clyde is navigable for the largest class of merchant vessels as far as Glasgow, and large sums of money have been expended, especially of late, in improving and deepening the channel. The Forth and Clyde Canal falls into the latter river at Bowling, a little above Dumbarton.

LAKES. The chief lakes of Scotland are- -Loch Lomond, lying between Dumbartonshire and Stirlingshire; Loch Ness in Inverness-shire; Loch Maree, in Ross-shire; Loch Awe, in Argyleshire; Lochs Tay, Rannoch, and Ericht, in Perthshire,

etc.

MINERAL PRODUCE.-The minerals of Scotland are numerous and valuable. The great coal-field of Scotland extends, with little interruption, from the eastern to the western coast.

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The most valuable part of this field is situated on the north and south sides of the Forth, about the average breadth of ten or twelve miles on each side, and on the north and south sides of the Clyde, ranging through Renfrewshire, part of Lanarkshire, and the north of Ayrshire. Detached coal-fields have also been found in various other parts of Scotland. Lime is very generally diffused throughout the country. Iron abounds in many parts, particularly in the coal-field. Lead mines are wrought to a great extent at Leadhills, and Wanlockhead in Dumfriesshire. In the soil which covers these fields, particles of gold have occasionally been found; copper ore is found at Blair Logie, Airthrie, and at Fetlar in Orkney; antimony at Langholm; manganese in the neighbourhood of Aberdeen; silver has been wrought at Alva in Stirlingshire, in Clackmannanshire, and at Leadhills in Lanarkshire; there are extensive slate-quarries in Aberdeenshire, Argyleshire, Perthshire, and Peeblesshire; marble is found in Argyleshire, Sutherland, and the Hebrides; sandstone abounds generally throughout the country; and granite and other primitive rocks within the limits of the Grampians.

MINERAL SPRINGS.-There are numerous medicinal mineral springs in various parts of Scotland, but those most appreciated are at the Bridge of Allan, near Stirling, Cowgask near Crieff, and Moffat in Dumfriesshire. The first of these places is resorted to, principally during the spring, owing to its agreeable situation and warm exposure; and the two latter during the summer and autumn, on account of their more bracing air. The water both at the Bridge of Allan and Crieff is saline, and at Moffat sulphureous. After these, the mineral waters of most note are at Pitcaithley, near Perth, and at Innerleithen, 6 miles from Peebles; both of these are saline. The other sulphureous waters are those of Strathpeffer, near Dingwall, Ross-shire; Muirtown, in the same neighbourhood; and St. Bernard's, at Edinburgh; Vicar's Bridge, near Dollar, Stirlingshire; and Bonnington, near Edinburgh. At St. Catherine's, in the parish of Liberton, 3 miles from Edinburgh, there is a spring which yields asphaltum.

CLIMATE. The climate of Scotland is extremely variable. Owing to its seaward exposure, however, neither the cold in winter, nor the heat in summer, is so intense as in similar

latitudes on the continent. The average mean temperature is about 47°, agreeing very nearly with Humboldt's isothermal line of that number which passed through the south of Scotland. The mean annual fall of rain in Scotland is about 35 inches; in Edinburgh from 1795 to 1856 by the Canaan register, it was 24.55 inches. The winds are more variable than in England, and more violent, especially about the equinoxes. Westerly winds generally prevail, especially during autumn and the early part of winter, but east and north-east winds are felt severely during spring and the early part of summer.

AGRICULTURE.-The soils of the various districts of Scot

land are exceedingly diversified. The general average is inferior to that of England, although many of the valleys are highly productive. In Berwickshire, the Lothians, Clydesdale, Fifeshire, the Carses of Stirling, Falkirk, and more particularly in the Carse of Gowrie, Strathearn, Strathmore, and Moray, there are tracts of land not inferior to any in the empire. The inferiority of the climate and soil, as compared with England, is exhibited by contrasting the phenomena of vegetation in the two countries. Notwithstanding the very advanced state of agriculture in many districts of Scotland, the crops are not reaped with the same certainty as in England, nor do the ordinary kinds of grain arrive at the same perfection. Thus, although Scotch and English barley may be of the same weight, the former does not bring so high a price; it contains less saccharine matter, and does not yield so large a quantity of malt. Various fruits, also, which ripen in the one country, seldom arrive at maturity in the other, and never reach the same perfection; while different berries acquire in Scotland somewhat of that delicious flavour which distinguishes them in still higher parallels.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.-The domestic animals common to Scotland are the same as those of England, with some varieties in the breeds. Among the wild animals, the red and the roe-deer are most worthy of notice. The golden eagle, and other birds of prey, are found in the mountainous districts, and the country abounds with all kinds of moor-game, partridges, and water-fowl.

FISHERIES.-There are many valuable fisheries in Scot

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land; the salmon fisheries, especially, produce large revenue to their owners. The herring fishery is carried on to a great extent, the herrings caught in Loch Fyne, are especially appreciated, on account of their rich flavour. There are most productive and valuable fisheries of ling and cod and haddock, in the neighbourhood of the Shetland and Orkney Islands.

MANUFACTURES.-The manufactures of Scotland, especially those of cotton, linen, and wool, are extensive and flourishing. The principal seat of the cotton manufacture is Glasgow, of the linen, Dundee; and of the woollen, Galashiels, Hawick, Paisley, Kilmarnock, Stirling and Aberdeen. The making of steam-engines, and every other description of machinery, as also shipbuilding, both in wood and iron, is carried on to a great extent, especially on the Clyde; and vast quantities of cast iron goods are produced at Carron, Shotts, and other works. Malt has been made from an early period, and now upwards of five millions of bushels are annually converted into whisky and ale. Excellent paper is made. The mills are upwards of fifty in number, and the annual quantity made probably exceeds two millions of reams.

COMMERCE.-The commerce of Scotland has increased with astonishing 'rapidity, and a large trade is now carried on, particularly with America and the West Indies, since the middle of last century. In 1857 the declared real value of exports amounted to upwards of eight millions sterling, as follows-cotton goods and yarn, £2,448,852; iron, £1,545,311 spun yarn and goods, £832,692; herrings, £445,016; woollen yarn and goods, £424,430; coals, etc., £288,199; haberdashery, etc., £247,131; machinery, £222,531; spirits, £176,014; ale and beer, £145,193. The principal ports from which these were shipped were, Glasgow (£5,103,318, cotton, linen, and iron); Leith (£830,532, linen and iron); Greenock (£502,899, iron and cotton); Grangemouth, near Falkirk (£445,078, iron goods); Irvine, near Ayr (£246,588, coal and iron); Dundee (£230,020, linen).

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.-Scotland is now well supplied with both railways and turnpike roads. The Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, which connects directly the two principal towns, was the first in operation, and connected with it is the Scottish Central, diverging from Falkirk to Stirling and Perth,