Florence, in the same month. The year of the Jubilee led to increased devotion, manifested in pilgrimages, processions, and the frequentation of churches; but this excited hostility in some parts, notably in Belgium, where Liberal mobs attacked the Corpus Christi processions in Brussels, Ghent, and Antwerp.

In America, the stringent school law in the province of New Brunswick continued to excite strong feeling among Catholics, at whom it was aimed, and in January trouble took place at Caraquet, in which blood was shed; a Catholic religious procession was attacked while going from one church to another in Toronto, in September. The famous Guibord case, in which the Institut Canadien, after being defeated in the Dominion courts, appealed to the Privy Council in England, was decided by that tribunal, which declared that a Catholic bishop can excommunicate only individuals, and not a class of persons holding heterodox views. The fabrique of Montreal was ordered to allow the burial, which took place November 16th. An excitement was caused by an ejectment suit brought by the Sulpicians of Montreal to remove a Protestant chapel erected without authority on their grounds at Oka, near the Lake of the Two Mountains.

In the United States hostility to the Catholic Church was shown in New Jersey, which refused to permit Catholic inmates of penal and eleemosynary institutions to attend the worship of their own church; and in Ohio, where a law granting the liberty was repealed, although New York and Massachusetts granted it. An act called the "Gray Nuns Act," passed May 15, 1875, in New York, though virtually repealed June 9, 1875, excited sectarian action, and was formally repealed. Constitutional amendments in New Jersey provided for taxing church property and for preventing any denomination from obtaining any portion of the school-funds. The President, in a speech at Des Moines, September 30th, foreshadowed the anti-Catholic agitation as part of the next presidential campaign, and in his message more definitely brought it forward, by recommending a constitutional amendment vesting the direction of the public schools in the Federal Government, and prohibiting all religious or irreligious instruction, and also recommending the taxation of church property. The removal of Chief-Justice Duane, of Arizona, for delivering a lecture espousing the Catholic view of the question, took place soon after, December 11th. Complaints were made by the Osage and Pueblo Catholic Indians, of interference with their religious rights, and a "Ladies' Catholic Indian Mission Association," the first of the kind in the United States, was formed at Washington, D. C., October 28th.

Mexico pursued a course of hostility, expelling even the Sisters of Charity, many of whom arrived early in the year in California and Texas. On the 19th of March, the archbishops of the republic issued a pastoral, pro

ROOSEVELT, JAMES J.

693

testing against the laws of December 10th14th, 1874. The affixing of placards at Acapulco reflecting on the Catholic religion led to scenes of violence among the populace and an attack on a Protestant church. The trial of the murderers of the Rev. Mr. Stephens, killed in 1874, resulted in the punishment of several of the guilty, but neither in that case nor at Acapulco was any complicity or instigation proved against the Catholic clergy, as appears by the correspondence of the Mexican Government and the American minister.

In Brazil, the administrator of Olinda was arrested in May, and Canon Andrade, his successor protested against the Government action as illegal. The agitation throughout the country led to the overthrow of the ministry and the formation of a new ministry under Caixias. The result was, the release of the two imprisoned bishops on September 20th. The Bishop of Olinda proceeded to Rome, and a special envoy was sent to the Pope, leading to an arrangement by which the interdict on the chapels was removed.

In Buenos Ayres the recall of the Jesuits by the bishop, who confided to them the direction of a college, led to a Liberal outbreak. The college was attacked and in part demolished, and several of the Jesuits killed or wounded.

Persia, in May, granted religious freedom to Catholics, and in China reparation was made for violence done to Catholic missions.

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Among the losses of the Catholic churches was Dom Gueranger, Abbot of Solesmes, the reviver of the Benedictines in France, author of "The Liturgical Year," Origins of the Roman Church," "The Pontifical Monarchy," etc., who died at his Abbey of Solesmes, January 30, 1875. The Pope, to honor so illustrious a man, conferred special privileges on the abbots of that house.

On the 18th of April, Brother Olympe, Superior of the Christian Brothers, died.

Five cardinals died during the year: Cardinal Barili, March 8th; Cardinal Mathieu, July 5th; Cardinal Grasselini, September; Cardinal di Silvestri, November 24th; Cardinal Rauscher, November 26th.

ROOSEVELT, Judge JAMES I., was born in New York City December 14, 1795, and died at his residence in that city April 5, 1875. He was a distinguished member of one of the oldest families in the city. In 1812 he entered the Freshman Class of Columbia College. He was graduated in 1815, and entered the office of Peter Jay, with whom he studied law. He was admitted to the bar in 1818, and became Mr. Jay's partner. The same year Mr. Jay was elected to the Legislature, and all the business of the firm devolved upon the junior partner. Mr. Roosevelt followed his profession until 1830. During his professional career he applied himself more particularly to questions relating to chancery practice. He early identified himself with the Democratic party, and was for a time the treasurer of the Tam

many General Committee. In 1828 he was elected to the Common Council, and was reelected in 1830. At the close of his term, being much exhausted, he temporarily retired from professional life, and went upon a European tour. While in Madrid he became engaged to the daughter of General Van Ness, then American minister to Spain. In 1831 he returned and resumed the practice of law. Soon afterward he was appointed Commissioner of the Almshouse and other public charitable institutions of the city. In 1835 he was elected to the Legislature, and again in 1840. In 1841 he was elected to Congress. He was one of President Tyler's select committee. At the close of his congressional term in 1843, he was tendered a renomination, but declined. He then took a second tour to Europe, where he remained for a year, studying foreign law in the courts of England, France, and Holland. In 1851 he accepted the nomination for Justice of the Supreme Court in the New York district, to which he was elected by a large majority. He filled this responsible position for eight years, and during one year occupied, ex officio, a seat in the Court of Appeals. the close of his judicial career he was requested by President Buchanan to accept the office of United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, and at the close of President Buchanan's Administration he resigned and retired to private life.

At

RUBEN, CHRISTOPH, a German painter, born in 1805; died July 8, 1875. He visited the Art Academy of Düsseldorf, and went with Cornelius to Munich. In 1841 he was appointed a teacher in the Academy of Prague, and in 1852 director of the Academy of Vienna, which position he retained up to his death. Among his best works is "Columbus discovering the New World." He also used the subjects of German tales for his paintings. The paintings in the Belvedere, in Prague, representing various scenes from Bohemian history, were also among his best works.

RÜCKERT, HEINRICH, a German historian, eldest son of the celebrated poet Friedrich Rückert, born February 14, 1823; died September 11, 1875. He studied history and philology in Erlangen, Bonn, and Berlin, was appointed Privatdocent in the University of Jena in 1845, and Professor of German Archæology in the University of Breslau, in which position he remained up to his death. He wrote: "Annalen der deutschen Geschichte" (3 vols., 1850; revised edition, 1861); “Geschichte des Mittelalters" (1852); "Deutsche Literaturgeschichte in der Zeit des Ueberganges aus dem Heidenthum in das Christenthum" (2 vols., 1853-'54); "Leben des heiligen Ludwig, Landgrafen von Thüringen " (1850); "Der Welsche Gast" Marienleben des Bruders (1851); Philip vom Kartauserorden" (1853); "Lohengrin (1857).

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RUSSIA (Empire of all the Russias), an empire in Europe and Asia. Emperor, Alexan

der II., born April 17 (April 29, new style), 1818; succeeded his father, February 18 (March 2), 1855; crowned at Moscow, August 26 (September 7), 1856. Son of the Emperor: Heir-apparent, Grand-duke Alexander, born February 26 (March 10), 1845; married November 4, 1866, to Maria Dagmar (born November 26, 1847), daughter of King Christian IX., of Denmark. (Offspring of the union are two sons: Nicholas, born May 6, 1868; and George, born April 28, 1871.)

The area and population of the great divisions of the Russian Empire were, according to the latest dates, as follows:

pire. An instruction, issued in May to the officials of the newly-formed educational district of Orenburg, describes with much detail the policy of the Government in this matter. The above district comprises the provinces of Perm, Ufa, and Orenburg, whose inhabitants are mostly of Asiatic origin, there being upward of two millions of Bashkirs, Kirgheez, Mordvins, Tchouvasches, Tcheremisses, etc., nearly all either Mohammedans or pagans. The Government directs that by means of the schools "the various parts of the empire shall be so unified that all may be penetrated with the same ideas and feelings toward the state, and that the principles hostile to the Russian Empire, which are based on the blindness of ignorance or on obstinate isolation, may totally disappear." The chief object of the schools in districts inhabited by non-Russian nationalities is "to prevent those who are not Russians from giving themselves up to the dangerous isolation of narrow national tendencies and to religious intolerance; in a word, to convert an inaccessible and reserved mass of people into citizens of the Russian state, with a warm sympathy for its interests." There is to be no compulsion as to the abandonment of religious doctrines or national peculiarities; but the Government considers it has an "undoubted right" to require a knowledge of Russian from all its subjects; Russian must become not only an object of study, but a means of study." The official estimate of revenue and expenditure for the years 1875-'76 is as follows (value expressed in rubles, one ruble = $0.772):

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Turgai..

202,192

289,930

Uralsk..

1875

Transcaspian (territory)..

1876.

559.361,193 570,138,308

Expenditure.

Population.

COUNTRIES.

13,105

11,809 1,602 12,911

Total.. 7,250 5,855 The length of railroads in operation on January 1, 1874, amounted to 18,796 kilometres. At the close of the year 1872 the telegraphlines in operation had an aggregate length of 78,073 kilometres, while the length of wire was 155,444 kilometres.

The Russian Ministry of Communications has ordered an inquiry to be made into the canal system of the empire, with the view of increasing its utility for public traffic. At present, the Baltic Sea is placed in direct communication with the Caspian by means of three canals, all debouching into the Volga-the Vyshne Volotchsk, the Tishyin, and the Maria Canal, which is the largest of the three. The lakes of Ladoga and Ilmen, on which navigation is dangerous, owing to the prevalence of sudden squalls, are surrounded by canals, and it is possible to proceed from the White Sea to the Baltic by means of a canal connecting it with the Dwina, and to the Caspian by another canal, which connects it with the Sheksna, a branch of the Volga. There are canals between affluents of the Dwina and the Kama, which facilitate direct communication between the White Sea and the Caspian; and the Duna and Dnieper, the Vistula and the Niemen, etc., are also connected by canals. Most of these canals, however, have so deteriorated in the course of time, that few of them are used, except the Maria Canal. The Government has decided to take the necessary steps for this purpose as soon as the inquiry is completed.

The operations of the Russians in Central Asia were, in 1875, of more than usual importance. An insurrection, which in July broke out against the Khan of Khokan, soon assumed the character of a Mohammedan war against the Russians, in which both parties of the khanate population, the settled (Sartes), and

the nomads (Kirgheez and Kiptchaks), took part. An invasion of the Russian territory resulted in the defeat of the invaders, the march of the Russians into the khanate, the occupation of the city of Khokan, and the occupation of a part of the khanate to the Russian dominions. (See KHOKAN.)

The Khans of Bokhara and Khiva continued throughout the year in peaceful submission to the Russian rule. An important expedition, under the command of Colonel Ivanoff, was sent, in January, against the Toorkoman tribes which inhabit the country inclosed by the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Amoo Darya, Afghanistan, and Persia. Most of these tribes are tributaries of Khiva, and the Russian expedition was undertaken under the pretext of punishing them for their insurrection against the Khan of Khiva. The Russian newspapers extol the brilliant manner in which the campaign was conducted, and the remarkable results which it has produced. According to the accounts given by the Russian papers, the detachment under Colonel Ivanoff, consisting of 1,500 men, crossed the Amoo Darya on the 17th of January, and directed its course toward KooniéOorgentch. Before setting out, Colonel Ivanoff sent a proclamation to all the Toorkoman tribes, demanding instant submission; then, after causing rumors to be circulated that he intended to march to Kizib-Tasleer, he advanced thirty-three versts in that direction and bivouacked on the banks of an irrigation canal under the walls of Koonié-Oorgentch. The next morning at daybreak the army approached the town, but instead of continuing its march southward, it turned suddenly aside toward the northwest, passed through the town, and surprised the encampments of the Kool-Yomoods, eight versts from it. So unexpected was the attack that not a single tent had been struck. The tribe, possessing 1,000 tents, was considered the most refractory one of all; it having pillaged a Persian caravan in 1874, and attacked the Khivan officials sent to demand its submission. For this reason Colonel Ivanoff determined to strike terror into the hearts of the rest of the Toorkoman tribes by punishing this one severely, and, dividing his army * In the early part of 1876 the whole of the khanate was annexed to Russia, and organized as a Russian province.

into two detachments, he dispatched one, consisting of 150 Cossacks, to burn all the encampments situated within a radius of four miles of the Russian camp at Boyoodor, while he, with the main body, ravaged the rest of the country belonging to those nomads. Out of the 1,000 tents, only two were spared, because their owners had befriended the Russians while on the march to Khiva. The cattle were confiscated, and the poor wretches were left with only their lives. The news of the punishment inflicted on the Kool-Yomoods spread rapidly among the neighboring nomads. Colonel Ivanoff again sent warnings to the Toorkoman chiefs, and then, to give them time to reflect, marched southward to Ak-Kala. The inhabitants of Koonié-Oorgentch, delighted at the punishment inflicted on the Kool-Yomoods, furnished fuel and forage at extremely moderate prices. While the troops were stationed at Ak-Kala, the Khan of Khiva sent a letter to Colonel Ivanoff, thanking him for what he had done, and announcing that all the Toorkomans seemed inclined to submit, with the exception of the Yomoods of Kazavat, who were still hesitating which side they should take. He also offered to place himself at the head of his Oozbecks and join the expedition if the Russian commander judged it necessary, but Ivanoff refused to allow him to do so. He said he was quite able to punish the Toorkomans without any assistance from the Khan, and advised him to make a lasting peace with the nomads as soon as possible, as Russia could not always be sending soldiers to fight his battles for him. In June a new expedition, about 1,000 strong, left Krasnovodsk, on the Caspian Sea, under the command of General Lomakin. Having reached the wells of Igda, in the steppe between the Caspian and the Amoo-Darya, General Lomakin received some Toorkoman chiefs from the south, among them Budai Verdi Khan, brother of Kaushit Khan, the head chief of the Merv Toorkomans. These guests assured the general that, though their tribes had been formerly hostile to Russia, they were now animated by feelings of friendship and sympathy. The general then ordered a small detachment to escort the engineers and other scientific members of the expedition along the ancient bed of the Amoo-Darya to Sary Kamish, where they were met by about fifty Khivese troopers, the main force retracing its steps and proceeding farther south to visit the Russian possessions on the Lower Attreck. The reconnoitring party which left for Sary Kamish arrived safely at the Tcharyshli Wells, situated 150 versts in a northwesterly direction, where the principal chiefs of the Teking tribes declared to General Lomakin that the Tekings had, in a special assembly, resolved to submit to Russia, and to surrender all the prisoners in their hands. The surrender of the latter was, accordingly, at once effected. The nomad tribes friendly to Russia now leave caravans unmolested, and have punished those

who had committed hostile acts against Russians. The expedition to the Attreck River, which has its mouth in the southeast corner of the Caspian Sea, and constitutes part of the frontier between Persia and Russia, did not start until August. Russian accounts of this expedition state that a detachment under the command of the chief of the Transcaspian Military District marched in the direction of Lakes Shairdy and Bugdaily, on the way to Tchikishliar, in the vicinity of the mouth of the Attreck. Another detachment proceeded thither by water, being conveyed by the Caspian Sea flotilla. Although two stretches of country, of 57 and 50 versts respectively, had to be traversed without water, and with the thermometer ranging almost continually above 90°, the march of the first column was accomplished quickly, and without detriment to the health of the troops, each of the above distances being performed in less than twenty-four hours. In the neighborhood of the Shairdy and Bugdaily Lakes, the column met 3,000 Thibits, belonging to the nomadic Toorkoman tribes. A perfectly good understanding prevailed between them and the Russian troops, and no disturbance occurred. The Toorkomans informed General Lomakin that the Afghan Ishkan, who had arrived to incite the tribes to revolt against the Russians and the Persians, had found no adherents, and was finally killed. Other tribes on their passage sent delegates to General Lomakin, offering their services. The column remained ten days on the shores of Lake Bugdaily, and General Lomakin, with some other officers, visited the ruins of the ancient cities Mestorian and Meshed. The land in this district was exceedingly fertile, and the wheatcrop plentiful. Mestorian must apparently have been one of the largest cities of Central Asia. The march from Lake Bugdaily to Tchikishliar, a distance of 110 versts, was also most successfully accomplished. At the latter place, the column met a battalion of the Schirwan Regiment, which had already arrived by transport across the Caspian Sea. The inhabitants received the Russian troops in a most friendly manner. After a week's rest at Tchikishliar, the column started for Attreck and Lake Tchat, to explore the upper course of the Attreck.

The expedition to the Attreck produced a profound impression both in Russia and in England, for in both countries it was looked upon as a preparatory step for the occupation of Merv. This town is the headquarters of the Toorkomans hostile to Russia, and is looked upon as a point of the utmost military importance. It is on the caravan-road from Meshed to Khiva and Bokhara, and its possession by Russia would complete the subjection of Cen tral Asia to Russia. A strong Russian force in Merv to the south of Khiva and Bokhara will find it comparatively easy to keep down extensive insurrections in the khanates, as