was drawn in the conscription in 1812, and at the peace of 1814 returned to his profession as a chaser, and studied drawing and modeling in the ateliers of M. Bosio and Baron Gros. His first exhibition at the competition of the Ecole des Beaux Arts was in 1819, when he gained honorable mention for an engraving representing Milo of Crotona devoured by a lion. In 1827 he began to exhibit his sculptures in the Salon des Beaux Arts, and continued to do so regularly until 1836, when, the jury having refused several of his works, he ceased to exhibit for fourteen years. From 1848 to 1851 he occupied the post of keeper and director of the plaster-casts at the Louvre, and in 1850 he was appointed to superintend the course of drawing relating to natural history at Versailles, and in 1854 to a similar post in the Museum of Natural History. He has attained great success in modeling wild animals. His lion crushing a boar, an animal group in bronze, is considered his finest figure. In 1833 he became chevalier and in 1855 an officer of the Legion of Honor. At the Paris Exhibition of 1855 he obtained a grand medal of honor, the only one awarded in artistic bronzes. In 1861 he was appointed a member of the jury which decided as to the claims for admission of works of art into the London Exhibition of 1861, and in 1868 became a member of the Academy of Fine Arts.

BAUER, WILHELM, a German inventor, born December 23, 1822; died June 18, 1875. Ile learned turning, and went to Munich as a journeyman. Here he joined the army, and took part in the Danish War of 1848. The defenseless state of the German coasts suggested to him the idea of making use of submarine navigation for naval war, and for this purpose he constructed a submarine fireship to destroy the enemy's vessels. February 1, 1851, he made an attempt with it in the harbor of Kiel, but, owing to a want of funds, he was unsuccessful. After this he occupied himself almost exclusively with the preparation of models of submarine ships, and, in 1852, went successively to Austria, France, and England, to work for the realization of his plans. But, wherever he went, he was unsuccessful, owing to a want of funds. During a stay in Russia, in 1855, he succeeded in interesting the Admiral Grandduke Constantine in his plans, and here, at last, he was able to complete successfully his submarine fireship. He was permitted to raise the man-of-war Lefort, which had gone down in the Baltic in 1857, and was also ordered to build a submarine man-of-war. He continued in the service of Russia, under the title of submarine engineer, until 1858, when, in consequence of difficulties with the authorities, he left for Munich. His stay in Russia had, in more than one respect, been an excellent school for him. His "camels" for submarine operations, and other inventions, were of farreaching importance. When the Bavarian post-packet Ludwig had been wreeked on

Lake Constance, in 1861, Bauer was called upon, and he undertook to raise the vessel with his "camels." Unfortunately, his apparatus proved to be insufficient, and he was forced to desist from his undertaking. But the liberality of Duke Ernest, of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and a subscription taken up through Germany, enabled him to complete his work, and, in 1863, he succeeded in raising it. He then went to Bremen, where he hoped to work for the dissemination and completion of his ideas, but he was interrupted by the war of 1864. This war suggested to him the possibility of constructing "fire-coasters" for the protection of the coasts. An association was formed in 1864 for the furtherance of this project. But Bauer's health naw gave way, and he continued to fail, until he was relieved by death of his sufferings.

BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS, of Wilmington, was born at Wilmington, Del., October 29, 1828; was chiefly educated at the Flushing School, established by Rev. Dr. F. L. Hawks, and although his early training was for a mercantile life, he studied and adopted the profession of law; he came to the bar in 1851, and, excepting the years 1855 and 1856, when he resided in Philadelphia, he has always practised in his native city in 1853 he was appointed United States District Attorney for Delaware, but resigned in 1854; was elected to the United States Senate as a Democrat to succeed James A. Bayard (his father), and took his seat March 4, 1869. His term of service expired March 3, 1875. But in January, 1875, he was reëlected for a second term, which will expire on March 3, 1881. The career of any hard-working lawyer at a country bar has little or nothing to attract more than a merely local interest, or to entitle him to especial recognition, and such has been that of Mr. Bayard.

Since he came to the Senate in 1869, his political views and associations have placed him in a minority, heretofore very weak in numbers, and therefore more labor has been entailed upon it, in meeting the infinite variety of propositions brought forward by the majority in these stormy times.

His diligence in the office of Senator is manifested in the records of the debates which disclose his attitude upon the public questions. An abridgment of many of his speeches will be found in this and former volumes of this CYCLOPEDIA.

In the formation of the Government and since its establishment, the men from whom Mr. Bayard draws his name and blood have been in the public service, and in the Senate he lineally represents a fourth generation. Thus in the preservation of the principles of republican government, and the line of conduct which can alone make such a government possible, he possesses a deep inherited interest and duty, which last he has diligently endeavored to perform.

Limitation upon power was the great idea

upon which the American fathers sought to erect a government for themselves and their posterity. This limitation was to be secured by the distribution of governmental powers, and the entire independence of each of the various departments in its separate sphere. The idea was always carefully kept in view in arranging the lines of State and Federal jurisdictions; and therefore Mr. Bayard would conceive the true American republican to be one who most closely legislates by the light and guidance of this idea, as set forth and contained in the Constitution of the United States. This political creed may seem narrow in these days to the sonorous champions of indefinite human progress and expansion, but its wisdom and safety grow plainer as the difficulties thicken about the pathway of the Government.

The speeches and acts of Mr. Bayard show, in all that he has said or done in public life, that constitutional liberty-the civil and religious liberty contenplated by the Constitution-has been the object of his anxious and solicitous defense. These remarks correctly describe all that he has said and done as a public man, and therefore are descriptive of the man himself.

His father's family were originally French, and being Huguenots fled from France at the time of the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1585), first to Ireland, and soon after to New York.

The two brothers (Nicholas and Balthazar) came to New York, and one went soon to Cecil County in Maryland, and from that branch he sprung.

His mother was a Philadelphian of the Francis and Willing families, who were early colonial settlers there, of English extraction.

BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe. Leopold II., King of the Belgians, was born April 9, 1835, son of King Leopold I., former Duke of Saxe Coburg; ascended the throne at the death of his father, December 10, 1865; was married August 22, 1853, to Marie Henriette, daughter of the late Archduke Joseph of Austria, born August 23, 1836. Offspring of this union are three daughters. Heir-apparent to the throne is the brother of the King, Philip, Count of Flanders, born March 24, 1827, LieutenantGeneral in the service of Belgium; married April 26, 1867, to Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, born November 17, 1845; offspring of the union is a son, Baldwin, born July 3, 1869.

The area of the kingdom is 11,373 square miles; population, according to the last census, taken in 1866, 4,737,833; according to an official calculation of December, 1873, 5,253,'821. Of this population, 54 per cent. belong to the Flemish and 44 to the Walloon-French nationality. The following table exhibits the population of each province of the kingdom on December 31, 1872, as well as the number of arrondissements and communes into which each province is divided:

The number of Belgian workmen who enrigrate to France and thrive there is considerable. There is one class, however, who migrate there yearly, and after a few months' work return to their homes with their earnings to start again the ensuing year. They are the strawhat makers, and every February about 8,000 start from Belgium and take up their quarters in a suburb of Paris and form a little colony there. Most are married, but all leave their wives and children at home. An experienced man can make at least eight francs a day, and therefore, by exercising a little economy, they can easily save 30 francs a week, or about 500 francs during their four months' stay.

Of the four universities of Belgium, the free Catholic University of Louvain had, in 1872, the largest number of students (901); the free (Liberal) University of Brussels had 583, the State University of Liége 436, and the State University of Ghent 210; the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, 1,576 students. There were, besides the Antwerp Academy, 72 other academies of design and drawing schools, with 9,447 pupils; a Conservatory of Music at Brussels, with 675, and another at Liége with 789 pupils.

Nearly the entire population of Belgium is nominally connected with the Roman Catholic Church, at the head of which is the Archbishop of Malines, and five bishops. The other ecclesiastical benefices consisted, December 31, 1872, of 156 deaneries, 232 cures (parishes of the first class), 2,772 succursales (parishes of the second class), 180 chapels, 1,730 vicariates, 110 coadjutors, 29 annexes, 706 oratories and chapels of hospitals, colleges, etc. The number of religious communities of men, in 1866, was 178, with 2,991 inmates; that of religious communities of women, 1,144, with 15,205 inmates. The number of mutual aid societies recognized by the state was 98; their aggregate revenue, 207,203 francs; expenditures, 180,447 fr.; capital, December 31, 1871, 475,895 fr.; the number of mutual aid societies not recognized by the state is larger; capital, December, 1871, 511,692 fr.

In the budget for 1874, the receipts were estimated at 229,643.000 francs; the expenditures at 236,417,402, fr.; the public debt on May 1, 1874, amounted to 1,059,446,000 fr.

The number of electors registered for the year 1874-75 was 111,135, or 2.11 per cent. of the population. The most numerous class of

electors were the agriculturists and farmers, who numbered 25,039. The literary men and journalists were the least numerous class, numbering only 69. Of chiefs of institutions, professors, and teachers, there were 1,120, of clergymen 2,738. The number of persons who were eligible for the Senate on account of their paying the 1,000 florins of direct taxes prescribed by Art. LVI. of the constitution was 453, or 0.086 per cent. of the population. The electors for the provincial assemblies numbered 219,613, or 4.180 per cent. of the population; those for communal elections, 347,441, or 6.613 per cent.

Of 43,311 men who were drafted for the militia in 1874, 8,727 could neither read nor write, 1,976 could only read, 15,726 could read and write, 16,228 had a higher education, and of 654 the degree of instruction was unknown. The standing army is formed by conscription, to which every able-bodied man who has completed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution is allowed. The legal term of service is eight years, but two-thirds of this time are generally spent on furlough. The strength of the army is to be 100,000 men on the war footing, and 40,000 in times of peace. On June 1, 1874, the actual number of soldiers under arms amounted to 37,391 rank and file, comprising 24,409 infantry, 5,114 cavalry, 6,331 artillery, 667 engineers, and 570 train. The civic militia or national guard numbers 125,000 men without and 400,000 with the reserve. Its duty is to preserve liberty and order in times of peace, and the independence of the country in times of war. A royal decree, dated October 20, 1874, divided the kingdom into two military circumscriptions, one embracing the provinces of Antwerp and West and East Flanders, and the second the others.

The condition of the merchant marine during the time from 1843 to 1873 is shown by the following table:

1,422,700,000 || 1,155,000,000

The aggregate length of the railroads in operation on January 1, 1874, was 3.370 kilometrès (1 kilometre = 0.62 mile), of which 1,636 were state railroads, and 1,734 belonged to private companies. The aggregate length of the lines of electric telegraph was, in 1872, 4,430 miles; that of wires, 15.802; the number of telegraphoffices was, in 1871, 478.

Sir II. Barron, secretary of the British legation at Brussels, reports that the quantity of coal raised from the Belgian coal-fields in a year advanced in 1872 to the unprecedented amount of 15,658.948 tons, and the export of the coal to 5,630,197 tons. Many cargoes of Belgian coal were shipped to England, even to Newcastle itself. Sir H. Barron states that the coal-beds of Belgium, perhaps the main source of her wealth, are being rapidly consumed; that whatever coal is left at the end of another century must be raised at a vastly-increased expenditure of labor and life, and that this must ultimately put an end to the working of the mines. In his opinion the Government should endeavor to check the waste of the national capital, and he suggests that the preferential tariff on the state railway in favor of coal for export is impolitic, and that an export duty might well be imposed. He quotes Mr. McCulloch's opinion that the retention of the export duty on British coal (abolished in 1845) would not have materially affected the export, and that it would not be easy to show how a revenue of two or three millions a year could be raised with less inconvenience.

The most important event in the history of Belgium during 1875 was the diplomatic complication with Germany. On February 3d, the German embassador in Brussels, Count Perponcher, presented to the Belgian Government a note from Prince Bismarck, complaining of several hostile demonstrations of Belgians against Germany. The first complaint was against the pastorals of the Belgian bishops in 1872 and 1873, and against some other publications by clerical committees offensive to the German Government and calculated to encourage the resistance of the German Ultramontane clergy, but without specifying any of these publications. The second complaint referred

to the Duchesne-Poncelet plot in 1873 against the life of the German Chancellor. That individual, in a letter addressed on the 9th of September, 1873, to the Archbishop of Paris, had offered to assassinate Prince Bisinarck for a sum of 60,000 francs. He sent at the same time a cipher alphabet in order that no one might be able to understand the correspondence. A second letter, undated, was sent to the same prelate, the author inclosing a photograph, said to be of himself, and giving his address, "Duchesne-Poncelot, Rue Léopold, Seraing, Belgique." On the 21st of the same month, the writer again sent a communication to Mer. Guibert, confirming his previous letter, and declaring himself ready for action. The archbishop placed the documents at once in the hands of the French Government, which transmitted them to the Belgian administration. Duchesne admitted having written the papers, being at the time drunk, and acting under the dictation of a friend, whose name he persists in concealing, for fear, as he states, of bringing that person into trouble. The third observation touched upon the address of several inembers of the so-called Société des Euvres Pontificales to the Bishop of Paderborn. The Prussian note added: "It is scarcely possible that the laws of Belgium cannot enable the Government to stop undertakings which might alter its relations with neighboring states. Neutral states which wish to preserve the advantage of their position should carefully avoid anything which might alter that principle of neutrality which is the basis of their existence. If Belgian laws do not contain the authority necessary to obtain the legitimate satisfaction claimed by the German Government, the latter hopes Belgium will supply the deficiency by fresh legislation."

The answer of the Belgian Government to this note is dated February 26th. It reminds the Berlin Government that the pastoral letters were published long ago, that they are forgotten, and that they were coeval with the commencement of the struggle between Germany and the Pope. As to the address to the Bishop of Paderborn, the Comité des Œuvres Pontificales has disavowed it. It was the work of individuals, and not of an organized society. With regard to the Duchesne plot, the Belgian Government reminds the German Government that it had thanked the Belgian authorities for what they had done in the matter, and that, moreover, investigations were still being pursued with regard to it. The Belgian answer adds that the Belgian laws suffice for the suppression of all offenses, but that offenses of intention cannot be repressed, and that no law in any country affects them. Protesting against certain attacks in the German note, the Belgian Government draws attention to the fact that the liberty which Belgium enjoys is, as it were, drawn from the very vitals of the nation, that the attitude of the Belgian people has always excited general admiration, that it

has given an example of liberty allied to order, and that it has powerfully contributed to the establishment of the juste parlementairisme adopted by nearly all the states in Europe. The good sense of the Belgian people had correctly gauged the theories of the International which had been openly preached to it. "Independent and neutral Belgium has never done anything, despite the incessant intercourse between two countries whose frontiers join, which could alter its relation with a nation both friendly and which guarantees its independence." The Belgian reply then concludes with some friendly formulas.

The German Government communicated its note to the cabinets of London, Vienna, Paris, St. Petersburg, and the Hague, but received an answer only from Lord Derby, intimating that Belgium would hardly be in condition to comply with the wish of Germany for a change of its legislation. An interpellation in the English House of Commons did not elicit a satisfactory reply, as the diplomatic communication was regarded as confidential.

Prince Bismarck replied to the Belgian note on April 15th. The reply cites no fresh facts. It descants on the principles of international law involved in the discussion, and expresses the hope that Belgium will seize the opportunity to dissipate the impression that Germany intended to attack the liberty of the press in Belgium. The Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs announced the receipt of the new note to the House of Deputies on April 16th, and said that in addition to this correspondence, courteous verbal explanations had been exchanged with the German representative; and, in conclusion, he assured the Chamber that the Belgian Government sincerely desired to strengthen good relations with Germany. The answer of Belgium to the German note of April 15th was dispatched on April 30th. It is courteous in tone, merely takes notice of Germany's action in regard to the revision of the penal laws, and in no way returns to the subjects of the first reply, except to reserve for a future time the adoption of a resolution in accordance with the friendly declarations contained in that reply.

On May 7th and 8th the Chamber of Deputies debated the last vote of the Belgian Government. M. Frère-Orban, the leader of the Liberal party, was the principal speaker. He approved the terms of the last answer to Germany. He considered that all grounds for apprehension respecting the independence of the country, the integrity of its institutions, and the liberty of the press, had disappeared. At the same time the neutral position of Belgium did not exonerate her from obligations to her neighbors. It was a question whether the Governiment had done its duty to Germany in the Duchesne affair. The Minister of Justice denied that the Government had been inactive in prosecuting the investigation. After a protracted debate, the Chamber adopted a resolu

tion, expressing entire approval of the declarations of the ministry, and concurrence in the regret expressed by the ministers in regard to the occurrences complained of by Germany.

On May 21st, the tribunal at Liége, which had the alleged plot to assassinate Prince Bismarck under investigation, dismissed the charges against Duchesne. All the papers in this case were, on May 23d, handed to the German embassador, with a note explaining that the investigation was exhaustive and nothing had been discovered beyond the letters which had already been published, and which did not bring Duchesne within the scope of any penal codes. The note added that the Government would propose an amendment to the law, by which proposals of murder would be made punishable the same as threats.

On May 25th the Senate had a long debate on the diplomatic correspondence between Belgium and Germany. A resolution was proposed declaring that the House completely approved of the explanations given by the Government, and passed to the order of the day. This resolution was unanimously adopted. In the course of the debate a Liberal member expressed the opinion that the charges put forth by Germany were not of a serious nature. He regretted, at the same time, the language used by the Belgian bishops, and protested against the statement that Belgium felt more sympathy for France than for Germany. M. Malou, the Minister of Finance, announced that a bill would be presented, rendering penal such acts as those with which Duchesne was charged.

On June 22d the Count d'Aspremont Lynden, Minister for Foreign Affairs, read in the Chamber of Deputies the note communicated by Count Perponcher, the German minister at Brussels, in which Prince Bismarck replies to the Belgian note of the 23d May. The prince expressed his thanks for the careful investigation made by the Belgian Government in the Duchesne affair, and for the intimation that it proposed to complete its penal legislation. This," continues Prince Bismarck, "has given great satisfaction to the Emperor, who anticipates that the simultaneous discussion of similar legislative measures in Germany and Belgium will have a salutary effect upon the public conscience. His Majesty also hopes that, should there be any renewal of attempts on the part of Belgian subjects to intervene in German internal questions, they will be dealt with in the same conciliatory spirit of which the Belgian Government in the Duchesne affair has given proof so strongly meriting our gratitude." The bill authorizing the punishment of mere proposals for the commission of crime was then discussed. The bill was supported by some deputies, while others advocated various amendments. M. Guillery moved an amendment restricting its provisions to attempts at assassination. The Minister of Justice, M. d'Lantsheere, made a speech, in which he dwelt upon the necessity for passing the

bill, and cited a case now pending before the Assizes of Hainault which would have necessitated the introduction of the present measure even it occasion had not been furnished for it by the Duchesne atlair. M. Bara argued that the bill was due to political circumstances, and he opposed the extension the Government proposed to give to the measure. On June 23d the Chamber passed the bill by 75 yeas against 6 nays.

The Minister of Foreign Affairs, though, like all the members of the cabinet belonging to the Catholic party, gave, in January, deep offense to one section of his party. The ques tion was raised in Parliament as to the desirableness of retaining the Belgian embassy to the Pope. The minister argued in favor of retaining it, but one of his reasons was that the legation offered an opportunity of letting the Pope know that the opinions of Belgium are not those of all the persons who repair to Rome." Some of the provincial Catholic papers in Belgium and France severely criticised the remark of the minister.

An animated debate was caused in the Chamber of Deputies on April 19th by an interpellation relative to the military honors which, it was announced, would be rendered to the newly-appointed cardinal, Archbishop Deschamps, of Malines, on the occasion of his solemn entrance into the city of Malines. The author of the interpellation, H. Jottrand, a member of the Left, warned the Government against the continuance of this relic of French legislation, as the archbishop, by such an act, would be recognized as an officer of the State, and the Government would become responsible for all his acts, a responsibility which, in view of the diplomatic complication with Germany, involved great danger. The Minister of War and the Prime-Minister defended their conduct by referring to several precedents.

The official subornation of the press was made, in May, the subject of an interpellation by M. Bara. He produced in the Chamber of Deputies a receipt for two hundred francs paid to M. Coomans, a prominent member of the Right, and editor of an influential journal, for the insertion of an article strongly attacking the opposition, accompanied by a ministerial résumé of the financial situation. He demanded an explanation. The Minister of Finance, M. Malou, candidly admitted that the transaction was indefensible, and had been sanctioned without sufficient consideration. He added that he had reimbursed the Treasury. M. Coomans attempted an explanation, which was received with shouts of laughter. He said he believed a similar statement and payment had been received by all journals. M. Bara made some severe remarks upon the transaction, and hinted that this was not the only charge of the same description he might have to make. The incident excited the greatest interest, and thousands of the public were unable to gain admission to the galleries set