colouring which pervades it, and the great amount of antiquarian learning which he has scattered through it, make the Aeneid a study for the historian of Rome. Virgil's good sense and taste are always conspicuous, and make up for the defect of originality. As a whole, the Aeneid leaves no strong impression, which arises from the fact that it is not really a national poem, like the Iliad or the Odyssey, the monument of an age of which we have no other literary monument; it is a learned poem, the production of an age in which it does not appear as an embodiment of the national feeling, but as a monument of the talent and industry of an individual. The Aeneid contains many obscure passages, which a long series of commentators have laboured to elucidate. Virgil has the merit of being the best of the Roman epic poets, superior both to Ennius who preceded him, and on whom he levied contributions, and to Lu- | can, Silius Italicus, and Valerius Flaccus, who belong to a later age. The passion for rhetorical display, which characterises all the literature of Rome, is much less offensive in Virgil than in those who followed him in the line of epic poetry.

The larger editions of Virgil contain some short poems, which are attributed to him, and may have been among his earlier works. The Culex or Gnat is a kind of Bucolic poem in 413 hexameters, often very obscure; the Ciris, or the mythus of Scylla the daughter of Nisus, king of Megara, in 541 hexameters, has been attributed to Cornelius Gallus and others, but Scaliger maintains that it is by Virgil; the Moretum, in 123 verses, the name of a compound mess, is a poem in hexameters, on the daily labour of a cultivator, but it contains only the description of the labours of the first part of the day, which consist in preparing the Moretum: the female servant of the rustic Simulus is a negress; none was ever better described,

"Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura,
Torta comam, labroque tumens et fusca colo-

rem,

Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo,
Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta."

The Copa, in elegiac verse, is an invitation by a
female tavern keeper or servant attached to a
Caupona, to passengers to come in and enjoy them-
selves. There are also fourteen short pieces in
various metres, classed under the general name of
Catalecta. That addressed" Ad Venerem," shows
that the writer, whoever he was, had a talent for
elegiac poetry.

The first edition of Virgil, a small folio, was printed at Rome about A. D. 1469 by Sweynheym and Pannartz, and dedicated to Pope Paul II. This rare edition was reprinted in 1471, but it is of no great value. The Virgil printed by Aldus at Venice in 1501, 8vo, is also very scarce. At the close of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries there were many prints of Virgil, with the commentary of Servius and others. The edition of J. L. de la Cerda, which is valued for the commentary, appeared at Madrid in 3 vols. folio, 1608-1617. The valuable edition of Nic. Heinsius was published at Amsterdam in 1676. The well printed edition of P. Masvicius, Leeuwarden, 1727, 2 vols. 4to, contains the complete commentaries of Servius, Philargyrius, and Pierius, with the “Index Erythraei," the Life of Virgil by

| Tib. Claudius Donatus, an "Index absolutissimus in Mauri Servii Honorati Commentarios in Virgilium," and an "Index Auctorum in Servii Commentariis citatorum." All these matters make the edition of Masvicius very useful. P. Burmann's edition appeared at Amsterdam, 1746, 4 vols. 4to. C. G. Heyne bestowed great labour on his edition of Virgil, 1767-1775, Leipzig, 4 vols. 8vo, with a copious index: it was reprinted with improvements in 1788. In the fourth edition of Heyne's Virgil, by G. P. E. Wagner, Leipzig, 1830, 4 vols. 8vo, the text has been corrected after the best MSS., the punctuation improved, and the orthography altered or amended. The text of this edition is also published separately in a single volume with the title "Publii Vergilii Maronis Carmina ad pristinam Orthographiam quoad ejus fieri potuit revocata, edidit P. Wagner, Leipzig, 1831, 8vo." It also contains the "Orthographia Vergiliana," or remarks on the orthography of many words in Virgil, arranged in alphabetical order.

The works of Virgil have been more fortunate than those of most of the writers of antiquity, for there are many very old MSS. of his poems. That which is called the Medicean, may probably have been written before the downfal of the Roman empire. An exact fac-simile of it was published by Foggini at Florence, 1741, 4to. The Codex Vaticanus, which is also of great antiquity, was published by Bottari, Rome, 1741, folio; but it is said not to be so accurate a copy as the fac-simile of Foggini. Wagner in his Praefatio has briefly discussed the relative ages of these two MSS.; but there seem to be no grounds for deciding the question. They are both undoubtedly very old.

The editions of the several parts of Virgil and the school editions are very numerous. The "Handbuch der Classischen Bibliographie" of Schweigger, ii. pp. 1145-1258, contains a long list. The edition of A. Forbiger, 3 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1836, and a second edition, 1845-1846, contains a sufficiently copious commentary for ordinary use, which is composed of selections from the commentators and his own notes.

The Bucolica were translated into German verse by J. H. Voss with useful notes; and a second edition by A. Voss, appeared at Altona, 1830. J. H. Voss's poetical translation of the Georgics is highly esteemed. His complete translation of Virgil appeared at Brunswick in 3 vols. 8vo, 1799. Martyn, professor of Botany at Cambridge, published a prose version of the Georgica, London, 1741, and of the Georgica, 1749, with many valuable notes. The commentary of Martyn on the Georgica is perhaps the best that has appeared for the elucidation of the matter of the poem. Gawin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, translated the Aeneid into Scottish verse, London, 1553. Ogilby's verse translation was published at London, 1649 and 1650; and Dryden's was published by Tonson, London, 1697. The blank verse translation of Dr. J. Trapp is very poor. The Aeneid translated by C. Pitt, and the Bucolica and Georgica by Joseph Warton, were published by Dodsley, London, 1783, 4 vols. 8vo. Sotheby's poetic version of the Georgica contains the original text and the versions of De Lille, Soave, Guzman, and Voss.

The chief authority for the Life of Virgil is the Life by Donatus, which, though not a critical performance, is undoubtedly founded on good materials. It is printed in Wagner's edition of Virgil

with notes. The editions, translations, commen- |
taries, and essays on Virgil form an enormous mass
of literature, in which the poet is rather buried
than embalmed.
[G. L.]

evening. Virginius immediately obtained leave of absence, and was already on his way to Rome, when the messenger of Appius arrived, instructing his colleagues to detain him.

VIRGINIA. 1. The daughter of L. Virgi- Early next morning Virginius and his daughter nius, a brave centurion, the attempt made upon came into the forum with their garments rent. whose chastity by App. Claudius' was the imme- The father appealed to the people for aid, warning diate cause of the downfall of the Decemvirs, who them that all were involved in a like calamity. had in violation of law continued in possession of Icilius spoke still more vehemently; and the their power at the beginning of B. C. 449. The women in their company sobbed aloud. But, instory ran that Virginia was a beautiful and inno- tent upon the gratification of his lust, Appius cared cent girl, betrothed to L. Icilius, who had ren- nought for the misery of the father and the girl. dered his tribuneship memorable by his law which He came into the forum attended by a great train assigned the Aventine to the plebeians. The of clients, and took his seat upon the tribunal. maiden had attracted the notice of the decemvir M. Claudius renewed his claim. Appius hastened App. Claudius. He at first tried bribes and al- to give sentence, by which he consigned the maiden lurements; but when these failed, he had recourse to the party who claimed her as his slave, until a to an outrageous act of tyranny, which he could judge should decide the matter. M. Claudius perpetrate with all the greater ease, as her father stept forward to take possession of the maiden, but was absent from Rome, serving with the Roman was driven back by the people. Thereupon Aparmy on Mount Algidus. One morning, as Vir- pius, who had brought with him to the forum a ginia, attended by her nurse, was on her way to large body of armed patricians and their clients, her school, which was in one of the booths round ordered his lictors to disperse the mob. The the forum, M. Claudius, a client of Appius, laid people drew back in affright, leaving Virginius and hold of the damsel and claimed her as his slave. his daughter alone before the judgment-seat. All The cry of the nurse for help brought a crowd help was gone. The unhappy father then prayed around them; but M. Claudius said that he did the decemvir to be allowed to speak one word to not mean to use violence, and that he would bring the nurse in his daughter's hearing, in order to the case before App. Claudius for decision. All ascertain whether she was really his daughter. parties went accordingly before the decemvir. The request was granted; Virginius drew them In his presence Marcus repeated the tale he had both aside, and snatching up a butcher's knife from learnt, asserting, that Virginia was the child of one one of the stalls, plunged it in his daughter's of his female slaves, and had been imposed upon the breast, exclaiming, "There is no way but this to reputed father by his wife, who was childless. keep thee free." In vain did Appius call out to He further stated that he would prove this to stop him. The crowd made way for him, and Virginius, as soon as he returned to Rome, and he holding his bloody knife on high, he rushed to the demanded that the girl should meantime be handed gate of the city, and hastened to the Roman camp. over to his custody as his slave. The friends of The result is known. Both camp and city rose the maiden, on the other hand, pleaded that by against the decemvirs, who were deprived of their the old law, which had been re-enacted in the power, and the old form of government was restored. Twelve Tables, it was provided that every person L. Virginius was the first who was elected tribune, who was reputed to be free, and whom another and he hastened to take revenge upon his cruel claimed as his slave, was to continue in possession enemy. By his orders Appius was dragged to prison of his rights, till the judge declared him to be a to await his trial, and he there put an end to his slave, though he was bound to give security for his own life in order to avoid a more ignominious death. appearance in court. They therefore offered to M. Claudius, who had claimed the maiden as his give security for the maiden, and begged the de- slave, was condemned to death, but Virginius himcemvir to postpone his judgment till her father self did not allow the last sentence of the law to could be fetched from the camp. Appius, however, be carried into effect, but permitted him to go into replied that the girl could not in any case be free; exile. (Liv. iii. 44-58; Dionys. xi. 28—46; that she must belong either to her father or her Val. Max. vi. 1. § 2.) Cicero in one passage calls master, and that as her father was absent, he ad- the father Decimus Virginius (de Rep. ii. 37), but judged her to the custody of M. Claudius, who in another passage he gives him the praenomen was to give sureties to bring her before his judg- Lucius, in conformity with the other ancient writers ment-seat when the case should be tried. At this (de Fin. ii. 20). unjust sentence the crowd exhibited signs of the greatest indignation. P. Numitorius, the maiden's uncle, and Icilius, to whom she was betrothed, spoke so loudly against the sentence, that the multitude began to be roused. Appius, fearing a riot, said that he would let the cause stand over till the next day; but that then, whether her father appeared or not, he should know how to maintain the laws and to give judgment according to justice. The greatest exertions, however, were necessary to bring Virginius to the city, lest Appius should have detained him in the camp. Accordingly, while Appius was kept in court receiving bail for the appearance of Virginia on the following day, two of the friends of the family made all haste to They reached the camp the same

the camp.

2. The daughter of Aulus, was a patrician by birth, but married to the plebeian L. Volumnius Flamma, who was consul in B. c. 307 and 296. In consequence of her marriage the patrician women excluded her from the worship of the goddess Pudicitia, and she thereupon dedicated a chapel to the plebeian Pudicitia. (Liv. x. 23.)

VIRGINIA or VERGINIA GENS, patrician and plebeian. Verginius is usually found in MSS. and inscriptions, but modern editors gene rally adopt the other orthography, Virginius. The patrician branch of the gens was of great antiquity, and frequently filled the highest honours of the state during the early years of the republic. They all bore the cognomen of TRICOSTUS, but were divided into various families with the surnames of

VIRGINIUS. 1. A. VIRGINIUS, tribune of the plebs. B. c. 461, accused K. Quintius, the son of L. Cincinnatus, and after a severe struggle obtained his condemnation. (Liv. iii. 11-13.)

2. L. VIRGINIUS, the father of Virginia, whose tragic fate occasioned the downfall of the decemvirs, B. C. 449. [VIRGINIA.]

3. A. VIRGINIUS, tribune of the plebs, B. C. 395, was condemned with his colleague Q. Pomponius, two years afterwards. (Liv. v. 29.) or details see POMPONIUS, No. 3.

4. L. VIRGINIUS, a tribune of the soldiers in the second Punic war, B. c. 207. (Liv. xxvii. 43.)

Cueliomontanus, Esquilinus, and Rutilus respect- had not left their homes, rose as a man against the ively. The first of them who obtained the consul-rule of such treacherous tyrants, and they found in ship was T. Virginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus in Viriathus a leader who was well acquainted with B. C. 496. The plebeian Virginii are also men- the country, and who knew how to carry on the tioned at an early period among the tribunes, but war in the way best adapted to the nature of the none of them had any cognomen. Under the em- country and the habits of his countrymen. At pire we find Virginii with other surnames, a list first he avoided all battles in the plains, and waged of which is given below. an incessant guerilla warfare in the mountains. It was not, however, till B. c. 147 that the Lusitanians were able to collect any formidable body of men; and in this year having invaded Turdetania, they were attacked, while ravaging the country, by the Roman propraetor C. or M. Vetilius, defeated with loss and obliged to take refuge in a fortress, to which the Romans laid siege. The want of provisions prevented them from holding out long, and they accordingly endeavoured to make terms with Vetilius, who promised to assign to them a place where they might settle. Viriathus, who was serving among his countrymen, but who had not yet been formally recognised as their general, reminded them of the treachery of the Romans, and promised, if they would obey his commands, to save them from their present danger. His offer was gladly accepted, and he was unanimously elected their commander. By a bold and skilful stratagem he eluded the Roman general, and again assembled his forces at Tribola, a town to the south of the Tagus in Lusitania. Thither he was followed by Vetilius; but Viriathus, pretending to retreat, led the Romans into an ambuscade, where they were attacked by the Lusitanians, and defeated with great loss: Vetilius himself was killed; and out of 10,000 Romans scarcely 6000 escaped. The survivors took refuge under the command of the quaestor within the walls of Carpessus, which Appian supposes to be the same as the ancient Tartessus. Fearing to meet the enemy in the field, the quaestor obtained 5000 men from the Belli and Titthi, Celtiberian tribes, who were then allies of the Romans, and sent them against Viriathus; but they were also defeated by the Lusitanian general, who now laid waste Carpetania without encountering any opposition.

5. VIRGINIUS, tribune of the plebs, B. c. 87, who accused Sulla, is spoken of under VIRGILIUS, No. 1.

6. VIRGINIUS, proscribed by the triumvirs B. c. 43, escaped to Sicily by promising large sums of money to his slaves, and to the soldiers who were sent to kill him. (Appian, B. C. iv. 48.)

VIRGINIUS CA/PITO. [CAPITO.] VIRGINIUS FLAVUS. [FLAVUS.] VIRGINIUS ROMA'NUS, a contemporary of the younger Pliny, wrote comedies and mimiiambi, which are much praised by Pliny. (Ep. vi. 21.)

VIRGINIUS RUFUS. [RUFUS.] VIRIATHUS (Oviplatos, Diod. and Dion Cass.: Ovpíaroos, Appian), a Lusitanian, commanded his countrymen in their war against the Romans, whose power he defied, and whose armies he vanquished during many successive years. He is described by the Romans as originally a shepherd or huntsman, and afterwards a robber, or, as would be called in Spain in the present day, a guerilla chief. His character is drawn very favourably in a fragment of Dion Cassius (Fragm. 78, p. 33, ed. Reimar.), and his account is confirmed by the testimony of other ancient writers, who celebrate especially his justice and equity, which was particularly shown in the fair division of the spoils he obtained from the enemy. (Comp. Diod. vol. ii. p. 519, ed. Wess.; Cic. de Off. ii. 11.) The Lusitanians had long been accustomed to support themselves by robbery and rapine; and as they still continued their predatory mode of life after the Romans had become masters of the neighbouring countries, the Roman commanders in Spain resolved to reduce them to submission. Accordingly in B. c. 151 their country was invaded by the propraetor Ser. Galba, and in the following year (B. c. 150) by the proconsul L. Lucullus as well as by Galba. The Lusitanians in alarm sent offers of submission to Galba, who enticed them to leave their mountain fastnesses by promising to give them fertile lands, and when they had descended into the plains, relying on the word of a The war in Spain had now assumed such a Roman general, he surrounded them with his troops threatening aspect that the senate resolved to send and treacherously butchered them. Very few of a consul and a consular army into that country. the Lusitanians escaped, but among the survivors Accordingly, in B. C. 145, the consul Q. Fabius was Viriathus, who was destined to be the avenger Aemilianus, the son of Aemilius Paulus, who con of his country's wrongs. The Lusitanians, whoquered Macedonia, received Spain as his province.

On the arrival of the praetor C. Plautius in the following year, B. C. 146, with a fresh army, Viriathus abandoned Carpetania and retreated into Lusitania. He was eagerly followed by Plautius, who crossed the Tagus in pursuit of him, but while the Romans were engaged in fortifying their camp on a mountain, covered with olives, which the Roman writers call the Hill of Venus, they were attacked by Viriathus and put to the rout with great slaughter. Plautius was so disheartened with this defeat that he made no further attempt against the enemy, but led his army into winter quarters, although it was still only the middle of summer. The country of the Roman allies was thus again left exposed to the ravages of Viriathus, who compelled the inhabitants to pay to him the full value of their crops, and destroyed them if they refused. He also took Segobriga, the chief town of the Celtiberians. (Frontin. Strat. iii. 11. § 4.)