which reasons are examined by Tillemont in one of his careful and elaborate notes. Polycarp is reverenced as a saint both by the Greek and Romish Churches; by the former on the 23d of February, by the latter on the 26th of January, or (at Paris) on the 27th of April. The Greeks of Smyrna, on his festival, used formerly to visit devoutly what is shown as his tomb, near the ruins of an ancient church or chapel, on a hill side to the S. E. of the city. Mr. Arundel (Discoveries in Asia Minor, vol. ii. p. 397) is disposed to think that the tradition as to his place of interment is correct.

officer into whose custody he was delivered, with the usual laxity of paganism, would have persuaded him, apparently through pity, to offer divine honours and sacrifice to the emperor; but his steady refusal | changed their pity into anger, and they violently threw him down from the carriage in which they were conveying him. On entering the amphitheatre where the proconsul, Stratius Quadratus, was, a voice which the excited feelings of the old man and his companions led them to regard as from heaven, exclaimed, "Be strong, O Polycarp! and quit you like a man." The proconsul was, like others, moved by his appearance, and exhorted The chief authorities for the history of Polycarp him to consider his advanced age, and comply with have been cited. The account of Eusebius (H. E. the requirements of government: "Swear by the iv. 14, 15, and v. 20) is chiefly taken from Irenaeus fortune of Caesar, recant, and cry Away with the (U. cc.), and from the letter of the Church at Smyrna, godless (τοὺς ἀθέους).”” Looking first round giving an account of his martyrdom, which will be upon the heathen multitude, and then up to heaven, noticed below. Halloix (Illustr. Eccles. Orientalis the old man sighed and said, "Away with the Scriptorum Vitae), Cave (Apostolici, or the Lives, godless." The proconsul again urged him, "Swear &c., of the Primitive Fathers), and Tillemont (Méby Caesar's fortune, and I will release thee. Re- moires, vol. ii.), have collected the chief notices of vile Christ." "Eighty and six years have I served the ancients, and embodied them in their narrative. him," was the reply, "and he never did me wrong: See also Ceillier, Auteurs Sacrés, vol. i. p. 672, &c. how then can I revile my King and my Saviour ?" The English reader may consult (beside Cave's Threats of being thrown to wild beasts, and of being work just mentioned) Lardner (Credibility, &c. part committed to the flames, failed to move him; and ii. ch. 6, 7), Neander (Church Hist. trans. by Rose, his bold avowal that he was a Christian provoked vol. i. p. 106, &c.), Milman (Hist. of Christianity, the wrath of the assembled multitude. "This bk. ii. ch. 7), and other ecclesiastical historians. man," they shouted, "is the teacher of impiety, the father of the Christians, the man that does away with our gods (ó тŵv njμetéрwv Oéwv kataιpérns); who teaches many not to sacrifice to nor to worship the gods." They demanded that he should be thrown to wild beasts, and when the Asiarch, Philip of Tralles, who presided over the games which were going on, evaded the demand, on the plea that the combats with wild beasts were ended, they demanded that he should be burned alive. The demand was complied with; and the populace, in their rage, soon collected from the baths and workshops logs and faggots for the pile. The old man ungirded himself, laid aside his garments, and took his place in the midst of the fuel; and when they would have secured him with nails to the stake, said, "Let me remain as I am; for he that has enabled me to brave the fire will so strengthen me that, without your fastening me with nails, I shall, unmoved, endure its fierceness." After he had offered a short but beautiful prayer, the fire was kindled, but a high wind drove the flames on one side, so that he was roasted rather than burned; and the executioner was ordered to despatch him with a sword. On his striking him with it so great a quantity of blood flowed from the wound as to quench the flames, which were, however, resuscitated, in order to consume his lifeless body. His ashes were collected by the pious care of the Christians of his flock, and deposited in a suitable place of interment. The day and year of Polycarp's martyrdom are involved in considerable doubt. Samuel Petit places it in A. D. 175; Usher, Pagi, and Bollandus, in A. D. 169; Eusebius (Chronicon) places it earlier, in the seventh year of Marcus Aurelius, who acceded to the throne, 7th March, A. D. 161; Scaliger, Le Moyne, and Cave, place it in A. D. 167; Tillemont in 166; the Chronicon Paschale in the consulship of Aelianus and Pastor, A. D. 163; and Pearson, who differs widely from all other critics, in a. D. 147, in the reign of Titus Antoninus Pius. Pearson brings various reasons in support of his opinion,

We have remaining only one short piece of this father: his Пpòs inσlovs imiσroλń, Ad Philippenses Epistola. That he wrote such an epistle, and that it was extant in their time, is attested by Irenaeus (Adv. Haeres. iii. 3, and Epistol. ad Florinum, apud Euseb. H. E. iv. 14, and v. 20), Eusebius (H. E. iii. 36, iv. 14), Jerome (De Viris Illustr. c. 17), and later writers whom it is needless to enumerate; and, notwithstanding the objections of the Magdeburg Centuriators (Cent. ii. c. 10); of Daillé (De Scriptis Ignatianis, c. 32), who however only denied the genuineness of a part; of Matthieu de la Roche; and, at a later period, of Semler, our present copies have been received by the great majority of critics as substantially genuine. Some have suspected the text to be interpolated; and the suspicion is perhaps somewhat strengthened by the evidence afforded by the Syriac version of the Epistles of Ignatius, lately published by Mr. Cureton [IGNATIUS, No. 1], of the extensive interpolation of those contemporary and kindred productions.

The Epistola ad Philippenses is extant in the Greek original, and in an ancient Latin version; the latter of which contains, toward the conclusion, several chapters, of which only some fragments preserved by Eusebius are found in the Greek. The letter partakes of the simplicity which characterizes the writings of the apostolic fathers, being hortatory rather than argumentative; and is valuable for the numerous passages from the New Testament, especially from the first Epistle of Peter and the Epistles of Paul, which are incorporated in it, and for the testimony which it consequently affords to the early existence and wide circulation of the Sacred Writings. It was first published in black letter in the Latin version, by Jac. Faber Stapulensis, with the works of the pseudo-Dionysius Areopagita and of Ignatius [DIONYSIUS; IGNATIUS, No. 1], fol. Paris, 1498, under the title of Theologia Vivificans; and was reprinted at Strasbourg, A. D. 1502; at Paris, 1515; at Basel, 1520; at Cologne, 1536; at Ingolstadt, with the

unintelligible readings of the older MSS. The Codex Reg. II. gives lavantem sese de da/sa stantem, and the Bamberg MS., lavantem se sed aedulsas stantem. Sillig conjectures lavantem se, sed et aliam stantem, and L. Jahn, lavantem se, ad aedem aliam stantem. (Sillig, Cat. Artif. p. 359, and edition of Pliny, c.; Jahn, Kunstblatt, 1833, No. 37; and collation of the Bamberg MS. appended to Sillig's edition of Pliny, vol. v. p. 443.)

There are several beautiful statues of Venus, stooping on one knee, in the attitude of washing herself, which are supposed to be copies of the work of Polycharmus. The finest is in the Vatican, and the next best in the Museum at Paris. (Mus. Pio-Clem. vol. i. pl. 10; Clarac, pl. 345, No. 698; Müller, Archäol. d. Kunst, § 377, n. 5; Denkmäler d. Alten Kunst, vol. ii. pl. xxvi. fig. 279.) [P. S.] POLYCLEITUS (Пoλúкλetтos), historical. 1. An officer appointed by Ptolemy to command the fleet sent under Menelaus to Cyprus in B. c. 315. From thence Polycleitus was detached with a fleet of fifty ships to support the partisans of Ptolemy and Cassander in the Peloponnese, but, finding on his arrival there that there was no longer occasion for his services, he returned with his fleet to Cilicia. Here he received intelligence that a fleet under Theodotus, and a land force under Perilaus, were advancing to the support of Antigonus, and hastened to intercept them. Both one and the other were surprised and totally defeated; the two commanders and the whole fleet fell into the hands of Polycleitus, who returned with them to Egypt, where he was received with the utmost distinction by Ptolemy. (Diod. xix. 62, 64.)

in the sixth century B. C. Having cured the tyrant
of a dangerous disease, he received from him some
valuable presents, and also succeeded in persuading
him to pardon a conspirator against his life (Phalar.
Epist. 106, 109).
[W. A. G.]

POLYCLEITUS (ПoλÚKλEITOS, in Latin writers, Polycletus and Polyclitus), artists. Some difficulty has arisen from the mention of two sta tuaries of this name, whom Pausanias expressly distinguishes from one another, who seem both to have lived about the same period, and who are both said to have been of Argos. (Paus. vi. 6. § 1.) Moreover, Pliny speaks of the great Polycleitus as a Sicyonian, though several other writers, as well as Pausanias, call him an Argive. (H. N. xxxiv. 8. s. 19. §2.) The question which thus arises, as to the number of artists of this name, is very fully discussed by Thiersch, but with more ingenuity than sound judgment. (Epochen, pp. 150, 203, &c.) He distinguishes three statuaries of the name (besides a fourth, of Thasos); namely, first, Polycleitus of Sicyon, the pupil of Ageladas, an artist of the beginning of the period of the perfection of art, and whose works partook much of the old conventional style; secondly, Polycleitus the elder, of Argos, maker of the celebrated statue in the Heraeum at Argos; and, thirdly, Polycleitus, the younger, of Argos, the pupil of Nancydes. But the common opinion of other writers is both simpler and sounder, namely that, on account of the close connection between the schools of Argos and Sicyon, the elder Polycleitus might easily have been assigned to both, and, if a more precise explanation be required, that he was a native of Sicyon, and was made a citizen of Argos, to which Sicyon was then subject, probably as an honour well earned by his statue in the Heraeum. We know the same thing to have happened with other artists; and we think that Thiersch himself could hardly have failed to accept this explanation, but for his perverse theory respecting the early date of Pheidias [PHEIDIAS], which imposed upon him the necessity of placing that artist's chief contemporaries also higher than their true dates. The questions which arise, respecting the assignment of particular works to either of the two Polycleiti of Argos, will be considered in their proper places.

2. One of the officers left by Epicydes in the command of the garrison of Syracuse when he himself quitted the city. [EPICYDES.] They were all put to death in a sedition of the citizens shortly afterwards. (Liv. xxv. 28.) [E. H. B.] POLYCLEITUS (Пoλúkλeтos), literary. 1. Of Larissa, a Greek historian, and one of the numerous writers of the history of Alexander the Great. Athenaeus quotes from the eighth book of his histories (xii. p. 539, a.); and there are several other quotations from him in Strabo (xi. p. 509, d., xv. pp. 728, a. d., 735, a., xvi. 742, a.), and other writers (Plut. Alex. 46; Aelian. N. A. xvi. 41). There are some other passages in which the name of Polycleitus is erroneously put for that of Polycritus of Mende (Diod. xiii. 83; Ath. v. p. 206, e.; Plin. H. N. xxxi. 2. s. 4.) He may, perhaps, have been the same person as Poly-great Argive statuary Ageladas, under whom he cleitus of Larissa, the father of Olympias, mother of Antigonus Doson. Most of the extracts from his histories refer to the geography of the countries which Alexander invaded. They are collected, with a notice of the author, by C. Müller, in his Scriptores Rerum Alexandri Magni, (pp. 129–133), in Didot's Scriptorum Graecorum Bibliotheca, Paris, 1846. (See also Vossius, de Hist. Graec. p. 489, ed. Westermann; Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. iii. P. 49.)

2. An epigrammatic poet, who is mentioned by Meleager (Prooem. 40), as one of those included in his Garland. None of his epigrams are extant. (Jacobs, Anth. Graec. vol. xiii. p. 941). [P. S.] POLYCLEITUS (ПoλÚKλELтes), a physician of Messina in Sicily, to whom some of the epistles of Phalaris are addressed, and who, therefore (if he be a real personage), may be supposed to have lived

1. Polycleitus, the elder, of Argos, probably by citizenship, and of Sicyon, probably by birth, was one of the most celebrated statuaries of the ancient world; and was also a sculptor, an architect, and an artist in toreutic. He was the pupil of the

had Pheidias and Myron for his fellow-disciples. He was some what younger than Pheidias, and about the same age as Myron. He is placed by Pliny at the 87th Olympiad, B. c. 431, with Ageladas, Callon, Phradmon, Gorgias, Lacon, Myron, Pythagoras, Scopas, and Parelius (H.N. xxxiv. 8. § 19). An important indication of his date is derived from his great statue in the Ileraeum near Argos; for the old temple of Hera was burnt in Ol. 89. 2, B. c. 423 (Thuc. iv. 133; Clinton, F. H. s. a.); and, including the time required to rebuild the temple of the goddess, the statue by Polycleitus in the new temple could scarcely have been finished in less than ten years; which brings his life down to about B. c. 413. Comparing this conclusion with the date given by Pliny, and with the fact that he was a pupil of Ageladas. Polycleitus may be safely said to have flourished from

about Ol. 82 to 92, or B. c. 452-412. A further confirmation of this date is furnished by Plato's mention of the sons of Polycleitus, as being of about the same age as the sons of Pericles. (Protag. p. 328, c.)

Of his personal history we know nothing further. As an artist, he stood at the head of the schools of Argos and Sicyon, and approached more nearly than any other to an equality with the great head of the Athenian school, whom he was even judged to have surpassed on one occasion, in the celebrated competition of the Amazons. (See below, and PHEIDIAS.) The essential difference between these artists was that Pheidias was unsurpassed, nay perfect, in making the images of the gods, Polycleitus in those of men. The one embodied in his Athena and Olympian Zeus, for all subsequent ages, the ideal standard of divine majesty; the other expressed, in his Doryphorus, the ideal perfection of human beauty. It is not, however, surprising that, in the estimation of many, the beauty of Polycleitus should even have been preferred to the more unapproachable majesty of Pheidias, in an age when art, having reached its climax, was on the point of beginning to degenerate. Nay, even Polycleitus himself was, by some, placed below Myron in some respects (Plin. H. N. xxxiv. 8. s. 19. § 3); and his forms were thought by the artists of the age of Alexander susceptible of greater grace. If, therefore, we find, in writers of a still later period, expressions which appear to refer to the works of Polycleitus as retaining something of the stiffness of an early period of art, we must not at once conclude that such passages, even if they are rightly interpreted, refer to some earlier artist of the same name.

think that Varro intended to censure Polycleitus on the ground that he adhered so strictly to his own canon as to introduce too much uniformity into his works; but the passage (to say nothing of its only referring to those statues of Polycleitus which rested on one leg) does not appear to be in the tone of censure, and if it were, we should rather suspect the soundness of Varro's judgment, than of Polycleitus's practice on such a point. In fact, this appears to be the very point in which Myron was inferior to Polycleitus; that the former, in his eagerness for variety, transgressed, in his choice of subjects, in his proportions, and in his attitudes, those high principles of art to which Polycleitus always adhered.

The word quadrata, in the above passage, demands further explanation. It is clearly meant to describe a certain proportion of the human figure, and may be roughly explained as expressing a robust middle stature, in opposition to a tall and slender stature. The meaning is clearly shown by Pliny's description (l. c. § 6) of the style of proportion practised by Lysippus, who, he says, made the heads smaller than the ancients made them, the bodies more slender and less fleshy, and thus the whole statue apparently taller" quadratas veterum staturas permutando.' Vitruvius gives a canon of proportion, according to which the length of the outstretched arms is equal to the height of the statue, so that the whole figure may be enclosed in a square; but it does not seem that there is any precise reference to this canon in the term quadrata, as used by Pliny. (Böttiger, Andeutungen, p. 120; Schorn, Studien, p. 300.)

The praises which the ancients heap upon Polycleitus are numerous and of the highest order. According to Pliny (l. c.), he was considered to have brought the art of statuary to perfection; and the same judgment is passed upon his works by Cicero, who expressly gives him the preference over Myron (Brut. 18; comp. de Orat. iii. 7, Acad. ii. 47, De Fin. ii. 34, Tusc. i. 2, Paradox. v. 2). Dionysius of Halicarnassus praises him, in conjunction with Pheidias, for those qualities which he expresses by the phrase KATA TO σEμVÒV καὶ μεγαλύτεχνον καὶ ἀξιωματικόν. (De Isocr. p. 95, Sylburg.) Quintilian (xii. 10) tells us that his works were distinguished by accurate execution (diligentia) and beauty (decor) above those of all others; but that he was thought to be deficient in grandeur (pondus). But even this fault is mentioned with the qualification "ne nihil detrahatur;" and the critic proceeds to explain that it applies to his preference for human subjects over divine, and, among the former, for youthful figures, and that the deficiency is ascribed to him chiefly in comparison with Pheidias and Alcamenes: “ Nam ut humanae formae decorem addiderit supra verum, ita non explevisse deorum auctoritatem videtur. Quin aetatem quoque graviorem dicitur refugisse, nihil ausus ultra leves genas. At quae Polycleto defuerunt, Phidiae atque Alcameni dantur." The breasts of his statues were especially admired. (Rhet. ad Herenn. iv. 6.) Several other passages might be added

Among the statements of Pliny respecting Polycleitus is the following (H. N. xxxiv. 8. s. 19. $2):-"Proprium ejus est, ut uno crure insisterent signa, excogitasse quadrata tamen ea esse tradit Varro et puene ad unum exemplum." (The word quadrata, which Sillig formerly suspected, is confirmed by the authority of the Bamberg MS.) This passage has exercised the critical skill of most of the writers on art. Thiersch regards it as obviously characterising the style of one of the early improvers of the art; and he therefore supposes that the artist of whom Varro made this statement was the oldest artist of the name, Polycleitus of Sicyon, whom, according to him, Pliny has confounded with the more celebrated Polycleitus of Argos. But the language of Varro, properly understood, neither requires nor sustains any such hypothesis. The mere mechanical difficulty in statuary, of making a standing figure rest its weight on one leg, may have been, and probably had been, overcome before the time of Polycleitus; but it was, as we understand Varro, a distinguishing feature of his works, that he did this without in any way interfering with those proportions and that repose, which constituted the perfection of his art. It was not, of course, for an artist like Pheidias to poise his divinities upon one leg; but Polycleitus, the inventor of the perfect canon of the human form, would naturally devote careful study to an attitude, which adds so much to the life-like expression of a figure, while, on the other hand, he refrained from any tampering with his own established proportions, and avoided the dangers into which the free use of this attitude might lead an artist too eager for variety. Some writers | ix. 18, ed. Müller.

* Perhaps, however, this censure may be implied in another passage of Varro, in which he says Neque enim Lysippus artificum priorum potius est ritiosa secutus quam artem," de L. L.