statuaries in bronze who made athletas et armatos et venatores sacrificantesque. (H. N. xxxiv. 8. s. 19. § 34.) [P.S.]

POLYEIDES (Пoλveidns), a Greek physician who must have lived in or before the first century after Christ, as he is quoted by Celsus* (De Med. v. 20. § 2, 26. § 23, vi. 7. § 3, pp. 91, 100, 127) and Andromachus (ap. Gal. De Compos. Medicam. sec. Gen. v. 12, vol. xiii. p. 834). He appears to have written a pharmaceutical work, as his medical formulae are several times referred to by Galen (De Meth. Med. v. 6, vi. 3, vol. x. pp. 330, 405, Ad Glauc. de Meth. Med. ii. 3, 11, vol. xi. pp. 87, 137, De Simplic. Medicam. Temper. ac Facult. x. 2. § 13, vol. xii. p. 276, De Compos. Medicam. sec. Gen. iii. 3, vol. xiii. p. 613), Caelius Aurelianus (De Morb. Acut. iii. 3, 5, pp. 186, | 198), Paulus Aegineta (iv. 25, vii. 12, pp. 514, 663), Aëtius (iii. 1. 48, iv. 2. 50, 58, iv. 4. 64, pp. 504, 715, 725, 809), Oribasius (Ad Eunap. iv. 128, p. 674), and Nicolaus Myrepsus (De Compos. Medicam. xli. 44, p. 788). [W. A. G.]

POLY EIDUS, artist. [POLYÏDUS] POLYEUCTUS (HOλÚEUKтOS). 1. An Athenian orator, delivered the speech against Socrates at his trial, which, however, was composed by some one else (Diog. Laërt. ii. 38). Antiphon wrote a speech against this Polyeuctus. (Bekker, Anecd. Gr. vol. i. p. 82.)

2. An Athenian orator of the demus Sphettus, was a political friend of Demosthenes, with whom he worked in resisting the Macedonian party and in urging the people to make war against Philip. Hence we find him accused along with Demosthenes of receiving bribes from Harpalus (Dinarch. c. Dem. p. 129). Polyeuctus was very corpulent, at which his adversary Phocion made himself merry (Plut. Phoc. 9), and his love of luxury was attacked by the comic poet Anaxandrides (Athen. iv. p. 166, d.). The orations of Polyeuctus are referred to by Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 10. § 7) and Diogenes Laërtius (vi. 23); and a fragment of his oration against Demades is preserved by Apsines (Rhet. p. 708, ed. Ald.). For further particulars see Dem. Philipp. iii. p. 129; Plut. Dem. 10, Phoc. 5, Vitae X. Orat. pp. 841, e., 844, f., 846, c., Polit. Praec. p. 803, e.; and among modern writers, Ruhnken, Hist. Critica Orat. Graec. pp. 80, 81; Westermann, Gesch. d. Griech. Beredtsamkeit, § 53, n. 5, 6.

POLY EUCTUS (ПAÚεUKTOS), an Athenian statuary, who made the statue of Demosthenes which the Athenians set up in the Agora, after the orator's death. (Pseudo-Plut. Vit. X. Orat. p. 847, a.) [P. S.]

POLYGNOTUS (Hoλúyvwτos), one of the most celebrated Greek painters, was a native of the island of Thasos, and was honoured with the citizenship of Athens, on which account he is sometimes called an Athenian. He belonged to a family of artists, who had their origin in Thasos, but came to Athens, and there practised their art. They probably derived their art, like most of the painters in the islands of the Aegean, from the Ionian school. His father, Aglaophon, was also his instructor in his art; he had a brother, named Aris

* In some editions of Celsus he is called Polybus, or Polybius; but upon comparison of these passages with the other authors who mention him, it appears most probable that the true reading is Polyides.

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Aglaophon, about B. C. 415. (Harpocr., Suid., Phot. s. v. Пoλúуvтos; Plat. Gorg. p. 448, b., and Schol.; Theophrast. ap. Plin. H. N. vii. 56. s. 57; Plin. H. N. xxxv. 9. s. 35, 36. §1; Quintil. xii. 10. § 3; Dio Chrysost. Orat. lv. p. 558, b.; Simon. Ep. 76. s. 82, ap. Brunck. Anul. vol. i. p. 142, Anth. Pal. ix. 700; AGLAOPHON; ARISTOPHON; Sillig, Cat. Art. s. vv. Aglaophon, Aristophon, Polygnotus.)

With respect to the time at which Polygnotus lived, Pliny only states indefinitely, that he flourished before the 90th Olympiad, B. c. 420, which is with Pliny an era in the history of the art (Plin. II. N. xxxv. 9. s. 35: from the context of this passage it would follow that Polygnotus lived after Panaenus, which is certainly incorrect). A much more definite indication of his time is obtained from the statements of Plutarch (Cim. 4) respecting the intimacy of Polygnotus with Cimon and his sister Elpinice, which, taken in connection with the fact of Cimon's subjugation of Thasos, renders almost certain the opinion of Müller (de Phidiae Vita, p. 7), that Polygnotus accompanied Cimon to Athens on that general's return from the expedition against Thasos, which is in itself one of those happy conjectures that almost carry conviction with them, even when sustained by far less direct evidence than we possess in this case.* Accord

The objection against this view, derived from a story told about Elpinice, would scarcely deserve attention, were it not for the importance which has been attached to it by such critics as Lessing, Böttiger, and others of less note. Polygnotus, we are told, fell in love with Cimon's sister, Elpinice, and placed her portrait among the Trojan women, in his picture in the Poecile (Plut. Cim. 4). Now, not only does it appear that Elpinice must at this time have been nearly forty years old (not, certainly, a very formidable objection in itself), but it is also related that, only two years later (B. C. 461), Pericles answered an appeal which Elpinice made to him on behalf of her brother Cimon, by calling her an old woman! (Plut. Cim. 14, Per. 10.) The whole story is suspicious, for Plutarch tells it again as having happened twenty-two years later, when, certainly, the appellation would be far more appropriate (Per. 28). But, even if the story were true, it is absurd to take the sarcasm of Pericles as an actual fact, and to rest upon it the argument that Polygnotus must have been in love with Elpinice when she was younger, and therefore must have flourished at an earlier period than that at which all other indications, direct and indirect, lead us to place him. Besides, Plutarch only mentions the story of his love for Elpinice as a rumour, and he even hints that it was a malicious rumour. The known connection of Polygnotus with Cimon is quite enough to account for his honouring his patron's sister with a place in one of his great paintings.

article Painting in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.

The improvements which Polygnotus effected in painting are described by Pliny very briefly and unsatisfactorily. (H. N. xxxv. 9. s. 35.) Among these improvements were, opening the mouth, showing the teeth, and varying the expression of the countenance from its ancient stiffness. He was the first who painted women with brilliant (or transparent) drapery (lucida veste), and with variegated head dresses (mitris versicoloribus); and, generally, he was the first who contributed much to the advancement of painting (plurimumque picturae primus contulit). Lucian also selects his figures as models of excellence for the beauty of the eye brows, the blush upon the cheeks (as in his Cassandra in the Lesche at Delphi), and the gracefulness of the draperies. (De Imag. 7, vol. ii. p. 465). These statements of Pliny amount to saying that Polygnotus gave great expression to both face and figure, and great elegance and variety to the drapery. How these matters were treated before his time we may judge from many of the ancient vases, where the figures are in the most constrained attitudes, the faces hard profiles, with closed lips and fixed eyes, often looking sideways, and the draperies standing, rather than hanging, in rigid parallel lines. That the expression which Polygnotus gave to his figures was something more, however, than a successful imitation of real life, and that it had an ideal character, may be inferred from the manner in which Aristotle speaks of the artist. Thus he calls him an ethic painter (ypapeús hoikds), a good ethographer (ayabos eoypapos), terms which denote his power of expressing, not passion and emotion only, but also ideal character. (Polit. viii. 5. p. 267, ed. Göttling, Poët. vi. 5, ed. Herm., 11, ed. Ritter.) In the second of these passages he contrasts him with Zeuxis, whose painting, he says, has no eos at all; and his meaning is further shown by what he says on the subject, of which these allusions to painting are in illustration, namely eos in poetry. Tragedy," he says, "could not exist without action, but it could without ideal characters (ewv); for the tragedies of most of the recent poets are without character (dnes), and, in general, there are many poets of this kind;" words thoroughly exemplified in some of the tragedies of Euripides, and in the account we have of others of the later tragedians and dithyrambic poets, where the expression of ideal character is sacrificed to the exhibition of mere emotion, to the energy and complication of dramatic action, or even to lower sources of interest. In another well-known passage, which forms a sort of landmark in the history of art (Poët. 2), he says: "But since those who imitate, imitate men in action, and it is necessary that these be either good or bad (for characters, en, almost always follow these distinctions alone: for all men differ in their characters by vice and virtue), they imitate persons either better than ordinary men ( кað nμâs), or worse, or such as men really are, just as the painters do: for Polygnotus represented men as better than they are; Pauson worse than they are; and Dionysius like ordinary men." And so, in the passage respecting hon, first quoted from the Politic (where the whole context deserves careful reading), he says thatthe young ought not to study the works of Pauson, but those of Polygnotus, and whoever

else of the painters or statuaries is ethic." In the Poetic, Aristotle goes on to explain his distinction by reference to various imitative arts, and especially poetry, in which, he says, "Homer represented characters better than ordinary men, but Cleophon like ordinary men, but Hegemon, who first composed parodies, and Nicochares, the author of the Delias, worse;" he then quotes Timotheus and Philoxenus as examples of the same thing in the dithyramb, and adds the very important remark that "this is the very difference which makes the distinction between tragedy and comedy; for the one purposes to imitate men worse, but the other better, than men as they now actually are." (Comp. Hermann's Notes, and Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie.)

The parallel which Aristotle thus draws between Polygnotus and Homer (and the poets of Homer's spirit) seems, from all we know of Polygnotus, to be an exact illustration, both of his subjects and of his mode of treating them. It should never be forgotten that Grecian art was founded upon Grecian poetry, and took from it both its subjects and its character. Pheidias and Polygnotus were the Homers of their respective arts; they imitated the personages and the subjects of the old mythology, and they treated them in an epic spirit, while Lysippus and Apelles were essentially dramatic: the former artists strove to express character and repose, the latter action and emotion; the former exhibited ideal personages, the latter real ones; the men of the former are godlike, the gods of the latter are ordinary men; Pheidias derived the image of his Zeus from the sublimest verses of Homer, Apelles painted his Venus from a courte zan, and Zeuxis could find no higher model for the queen of Olympus than a selection from real and living beauties. The limits of this article do not permit any further exposition of this essential and fundamental point of aesthetic science. We must not, however, omit to state a fact, in illustration of the parallel between Homer and Polygnotus, namely, that the painter's works in the Lesche at Delphi were commonly known as the Iliad and Odyssey of Polygnotus; though it must be admitted that most of those who used that phrase were thinking of the subjects of the paintings, and little or nothing of their character, and that very few had any notion of the sense in which Polygnotus is placed beside Homer by the great philosopher, who is rightly regarded as the father of aesthetic science. The subjects of the pictures of Polygnotus were almost invariably taken from Homer and the other poets of the epic cycle.

With respect to the more technical and mechanical improvements which Polygnotus introduced into painting, the statement of Pliny concerning his female draperies is admirably illustrated by Böttiger, to whose section on Polygnotus, in his Ideen zur Geschichte der Archäologie der Malerei, we here refer once for all, as one of the chief authorities for the present subject, and as one of the most valuable contributions to the history of ancient art. Böttiger (pp. 263-265) remarks that the descriptions of Polygnotus's paintings prove that female figures were introduced by him far more freely than we have any reason to suppose them to have appeared in earlier works of art; and that he thus gained the opportunity of enlivening his pictures with the varied and brilliant

colours, which we know to have prevailed in the dress of the Greek women. His draperies are described by Lucian as having the appearance of thinness of substance, part adhering to the limbs so as to cover the figure without hiding it, and the greater part arranged in flowing masses as if moved by the wind. (Lucian. de Imag. 7, vol. ii. p. 465.) Respecting the mitrae versicolores, see Böttiger, p. 265.

Concerning his principles of composition, we know but little; but from that little it would seem that his pictures had nothing of that elaborate and yet natural grouping, aided by the powers of perspective, which is so much admired in modern works of art. The figures seem to have been grouped in regular lines, as in the bas-reliefs upon a frieze; and when it was desired to introduce other sets of figures nearer to, or more remote from the spectator, this was effected by placing them in other parallel lines below or above the first. A sort of principle of architectural symmetry governed the whole composition, the figures on each side of the centre of the picture being made to correspond with each other.

Such an advance as painting made in the age of Polygnotus could not have taken place without some new appliances in colouring; and accordingly we are told by Pliny that Polygnotus and his contemporary Micon were the first who used the sil or yellow ochre which was found in the Attic silver mines; and that the same artists made a black (atramentum) from the husks of pressed grapes, which was therefore called tryginon, Tpúyivov. (Plin. H. N. xxxiii. 12. s. 56, xxxv. 6. s. 25.) Böttiger supposes that they used the yellow ochre to a great extent for draperies and head-dresses. Polygnotus is one of those artists whom Cicero mentions as having used no more than four colours. (Brut. 18; but respecting the error in this statement see Müller, Arch. d. Kunst, § 319, and Dict. of Ant. art. Colores.)

The instrument with which Polygnotus usually worked was the pencil, as we learn from a passage in Pliny, which also furnishes another proof of the excellence of the artist. The great painter Pausias, who was a pupil of Pamphilus, the master of Apelles, restored certain paintings of Polygnotus at Thespiae, and was considered to have fallen far short of the excellence of the original paintings, because “non suo genere certasset," that is, he used the pencil, as Polygnotus had done in the original pictures, instead of painting, as he was accustomed to do, in encaustic with the cestrum. (Plin. H. N.xxxv. 11. s. 40.) Polygnotus, however, sometimes painted in encaustic, and he is mentioned as one of the earliest artists who did so. (Plin. H. N. xxxv. 11. s. 39.)

As to the form of his pictures, it may be assumed that he generally followed what we know to have been the usual practice with the Greek artists, namely, to paint on panels, which were afterwards let into the walls where they were to remain. (Dict. of Ant. art. Painting; Böttiger, Arch. d. M.) In Pliny's list of his works, one of them is expressly mentioned as a panel picture (tabula); but, on the other hand, the pictures at Thespiae, just referred to, are said to have been on walls (parietes). Indeed, the common opinion, that panel pictures were the form almost invariably used by the early Greek artists, should be received with some caution.

VOL. III.

There is one passage of Pliny, from which it would appear that Polygnotus excelled in statuary as well as painting, though none of his works in that department were preserved. (Plin. H. N. xxxiv. 8. s. 19. § 25, adopting the reading of the Bamberg MS., Polygnotus, idem pictor e nobilissimis.) Perhaps this fact may contribute to the explanation of two obscure epigrams in the Greek Anthology. (Brunck, Anal. vol. ii. pp. 279, 440; see Jacobs's Notes; and comp. POLYCLEITUS.)

His chief contemporaries, besides the members of his own family, already mentioned, were MICON, PANAENUS, the brother or nephew of Pheidias, ONATAS of Aegina, DIONYSIUS of Colophon, TIMAGORAS of Chalcis, and AGATHARCHUS the scenepainter. No disciples of his are mentioned, although we may almost assume that he instructed his brother Aristophon and his nephew Aglaophon; but we are told by Aelian (V. H. iv. 3), that Dionysius closely imitated his style. (But see Aristot. l. c. and Plut. Timol. 2.)

The Works of Polygnotus, as mentioned by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 9. s. 35), include paintings in the temple at Delphi, in the portico called Poecile at Athens, those at Thespiae already mentioned, and a panel picture, which was placed in the portico in front of Pompey's Curia, at Rome. Pliny and Harpocration both state that he executed his works at Athens gratuitously; and the former says that, on this account, he was more highly esteemed than Myron, who painted for pay; the latter, that it was for this service that he obtained the citizenship of Athens. We may infer that he displayed the same liberality at Delphi, especially as Pliny tells us that the Amphictyons decreed him "hospitiu gratuita," that is, the počevía, in all the states of Greece. (Böttiger, pp. 271, 272.) To the above works must be added, on other authorities, his paintings in the temple of Theseus, in the Anaceium, and the chamber of the Propylaea, at Athens, and those in the temple of Athena Areia at Plataeae. The detailed description of these works, and the full discussion of the questions which arise respecting their composition, would far exceed our limits. We have, therefore, preferred to occupy the space with the more important subjects of the time and artistic character of Polygnotus; and we shall now describe his works briefly, referring to the authorities in which full details will be found. We follow a chronological arrangement, so far as it can be made out with any probability.

1. Paintings in the Temple of Theseus at Athens.

It is true that the only authority for supposing him to have painted here at all is a conjectural emendation of a passage of Harpocration; but the conjecture is so simple, and agrees so well with what we know of the artist's history, and the only interpretation of the text as it stands is so forced, that we can hardly hesitate to admit the correction. Harpocration, followed by Suidas and Photius, says (s. v.) that Polygnotus obtained the citizenship of Athens, either because he painted the Stoa Poecile gratuitously, or, as others say, the pictures ἐν τῷ Θησαυρῷ καὶ τῷ ̓Ανακείῳ. Now, we know that the Anaceium was the temple of the Dioscuri, but what was the Thesaurus? Böttiger (p. 270) replies, the public treasury in the Opisthodomus of the temple of Athena Polias. The objection, that it is strange that Polygnotus should have been employed to decorate the secret chamber of the temple, Böttiger endeavours to obviate by

H H

referring to the paintings of Evanthes in the opisthodomus of the temple of Jupiter Casius, mentioned by Achilles Tatius (iii. 6), not a very good authority (see EVANTHES). It may also be objected that the name of Polygnotus is not mentioned in the extant inscription respecting the works of this temple. But it is perhaps enough | to say that the conjecture is too violent to be admitted by itself; especially when it is contrasted with the explanation of Reinesius, who, for ev T Θησαυρῷ would read ἐν τῷ Θησέως ἱερῷ. Now, the temple of Theseus was built during the administration of Cimon, after the translation of the hero's remains from Scyros to Athens in B. c. 468. If, therefore, as is almost certain, Cimon brought | Polygnotus with him from Thasos in B. c. 463, it would almost certainly be partly with a view to the decoration of this very temple. Pausanias, indeed, in his description of the temple (i. 17. § 2), ascribes the paintings in it to Micon, but this is rather a confirmation of the argument than otherwise, for these two artists more than once assisted in decorating the same building. It is an obvious conjecture, from a comparison of the dates, that Micon was already employed upon the painting of the temple before the arrival of Polygnotus, who was then appointed to assist him. [Comp. MICON.]

2. Paintings in the Stoa Poecile at Athens.Among the works which Cimon undertook for the improvement of the city, after the final termination of the Persian wars, the spoils of which furnished him with the means, one of the first was the decoration of the places of public resort, such as the Agora and the Academy, the former of which he planted with plane-trees (Plut. Cim. 3). He also enlarged and improved the portico which ran along one side of the Agora, and which was called at first the Portico of Peisianax (ʼn Пováктelos σTOά), but afterwards received the name of the Poecile or Painted Portico (oikin σToά), from the paintings with which it was decorated. (Paus. i. 15; Müller, Phid. 6; Böttiger, p. 275.) Cimon executed this work soon after his return from Thasos (Plut. . c.), and employed Polygnotus and Micon to decorate the portico with those paintings, from which it afterwards obtained its name. The portico itself was a long colonnade, formed by a row of columns on one side and a wall on the other; and against this wall were placed the paintings, which were on panels. These paintings, as they appeared in the time of Pausanias, represented four subjects: (1.) The battle of Oenoë, fought between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, the painter of which was unknown; (2.) The battle of Theseus and the Athenians with the Amazons, by Micon; (3.) The Greeks, after the taking of Troy, assembling to judge the case of Cassandra's violation by Ajax; this painting was by Polygnotus; (4.) The battle of Marathon, by Panaenus; also ascribed to Micon and to Polygnotus, who may have assisted in the work. (Paus. l. c.; Böttiger, pp. 274-290; MICON, PANAENUS.) From the description of Pausanias, it would seem that, in the picture of Polygnotus, the Greek chieftains, sitting in judgment, formed the centre of the composition, with the Grecian army grouped on the one side, and, on the other, the Trojan captives, among whom Cassandra was conspicuous. Böttiger supposes that, in his treatment of the subject, the artist

followed the 'Ixlov Пépois of the cyclic poet Arctinus. Böttiger also supposes that there were two or three panels, representing different stages of the event; a supposition for which there does not seem to be sufficient reason. The subject, as representing the first great victory of the united Greeks, was appropriately connected with the celebration of their recent triumphs.

3. In the Anaceium, or Temple of the Dioscuri, at Athens, which was perhaps more ancient than the time of Cimon, who seems to have repaired and beautified it, Polygnotus painted the marriage of the daughters of Leucippus, as connected with the mythology of the Dioscuri (Пoλúуvæтos μèv ἔχοντα ἐς αὐτοὺς ἔγραψε γάμον τῶν θυγατέρων Tv AEVKITTоv, Paus. i. 18. § 1), and Micon painted the Argonautic expedition. The subject of Polygnotus was evidently that favourite subject of ancient poetry and art, the rape of Phoebe and Hilaera on their marriage-day, by Castor and Pollux: the ancient form of the legend, which was followed by Polygnotus, is supposed by Böttiger to have been contained in the cyclic poem entitled Cypria, which related to the events before the Iliad. We still possess, in bas-reliefs on ancient sarcophagi, three if not four representations of the story, which we may safely assume to have been imitated from the picture of Polygnotus, and which strikingly display that uniform symmetry, which we know to have been one characteristic of his works, in contradistinction to the more natural grouping of a later period. In modern times, Rubens has painted the story of Phoebe and Hilaera in a picture, now at Munich, which would doubtless present a most interesting contrast to the treatment of the same subject by Polygnotus, if we had but the opportunity of comparing them. The sculptures also, which are presumed to have been taken after the painting of Polygnotus, have furnished David with some ideas for his Rape of the Sabine women. (Böttiger, pp. 291-295.)

4. In the temple of Athena Areia at Plataeae, Polygnotus and Onatas painted the walls of the front portico (that is, probably, the wall on each side of the principal entrance); Polygnotus represented Ulysses just after he had slain the suitors. (Paus. ix. 4. § 1; Hom. Od. xxii.)

5. His paintings on the walls of the temple of Thespiae have been already mentioned. Nothing is known of their subject.

6. Paintings in the Lesche of the Cnidians at Delphi.-Some of the same causes which led to the sudden development of art at Athens, in the age following that of the Persian wars, gave a similar impulse to its advancement about the same time in other places, especially at those two centres of the Greek union and religion, Olympia and Delphi. The great works at the former place have been spoken of under PHEIDIAS; those at the latter appear to have been executed not only about the same time (or rather, perhaps, a little earlier), but also by Athenian artists chiefly. We know, for example, that the statues in the pediments of the temple at Delphi were made by PRAXIAS of Athens, the disciple of Calamis, and finished, after his death, by ANDROSTHENES, the disciple of Eucadmus (Paus. x. 19. § 3). These artists must have been contemporary with Pheidias and Polygnotus; and there are some other indications of the employment of Athenian artists at Delphi about the same period (Müller, Phid. p. 28, n. y.).