position of Heracleitus, that every thing is motion, and nothing besides or beyond it, and that out of it every thing comes into existence; that nothing at any time exists, but that everything is perpetually becoming (Plat. Theaet. pp. 156, 152: Sextus Empiricus inaccurately attributes to him matter in a perpetual state of Alux, vλn þevoth, Pyrrhon. Hyp. i. 217, 218). He then distinguished two principal kinds of the infinitely manifold motions, an active and a passive; but premised that the motion which in one concurrence manifested itself actively, will in another appear as passive, so that the difference is as it were a fluctuating, not a permanent one (Theaet. pp. 156, 157). From the concurrence of two such motions arise sensation or perception, and that which is felt or perceived, according to the different velocity of the motion; and that in such a way that where there is homogeneity in what thus meets, as between seeing and colour. hearing and sound (ib. p. 156), the definiteness of the colour and the seeing, of the perception and that which is perceived, is produced by the concurrence of corresponding motions (p. 156, d., comp. 159, c.). Consequently, we can never speak of Being and Becoming in themselves, but only for something (Ti), or of something (Tvós), or to something (pós Ti, p. 160, b., 156, c., 152, d.; Arist. Metaph. ix. 3; Sext. Emp. Hyp. i. 216, 218). Consequently there is or exists for each only that of which he has a sensation, and only that which he perceives is true for him (Theaet. p. 152, a., comp. Cratyl. p. 386; Aristocles, in Euseb. Praep. Evang. xiv. 20; Cic. Acad. ii. 46; Sext. Emp. 1.c. and adv. Math. vii. 63, 369, 388, &c.); so that as sensation, like its objects, is engaged in a perpetual change of motion (Theaet. p. 152, b.; Sext. Emp. Hyp. i. p. 217, f.), opposite assertions might exist, according to the difference of the perception respecting each several object (Arist. Metaph. iv. 5; Diog. Laërt. ix. 5; Clem. Alex. Strom. v. p. 674, a. ; Senec. Epist. 88). The conclusions hitherto discussed, which he drew from the Heracleitean doctrine of eternal Becoming, Protagoras summed up in the well-known proposition: The man is the measure of all things; of the existent that they exist; of the non-existent, that they do not exist (Theaet. p. 152, a., 160, d., Cratyl. p. 385, e. ; Arist. Metaph. x. 1, xi. 6; Sext. Emp. adv. Math. vii. 60, Pyrrhon. Hyp. i. p. 216; Aristocles, in Euseb. Praep. Evang. xiv. 20; Diog. Laërt. ix. 51), and understood by the man, the perceiving or sensation-receiving subject. He was compelled, therefore, likewise to admit, that confutation was impossible, since every affirmation, if resting upon sensation or perception, is equally justifiable (Plat. Euthyd. p. 185, d. &c.; Isocr. Helenae Enc. p. 231, Bekk.; Diog. Laërt. ix. 53); but, notwithstanding the equal truth and justifiableness of opposite affirmations, he endeavoured to establish a distinction of better and worse, referring them to the better or worse condition of the percipient subject, and promised to give directions for improving this condition, i. e. for attaining to higher activity (Theaet. p. 167; comp. Sext. Emp. Hyp. i. p. 218). Already, before Plato and Aristotle (Metaph. iv. 4, | comp. the previously quoted passages), Democritus had applied himself to the confutation of this sensualism of Protagoras, which annihilated existence, knowledge, and all understanding (Plut. adv. Colot. p. 1109, a.; Sext. Emp. adv. Math. vii. 389).

When Protagoras, in his book on the Gods,

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maintained that we are not able to know whether and how they exist (Timon, in Sext. Emp. adv. Math. ix. 56, comp. 58; Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 1, 12, 23, 42; Diog. Laërt. ix. 51, &c. To regard the expression, droîoi rivés elo, quales sint, as Frei does, l. c. p. 98, as a foreign addition, seems to me to involve difficulties), he probably could only have in mind the mutually opposed statements on the point, and must himself have been disposed to a denial as he could scarcely have been conscious of a corresponding sensation or perception. It is not every pleasure, but only pleasure in the beautiful, to which Protagoras, in the dialogue which bears his name (p. 351, b.), allows moral worth; and he refers virtue to a certain sense of shame (aidu's) implanted in man by nature, and a certain conscious feeling of justice (díkn), which are to serve the purpose of securing the bonds of connection in private and political life (ibid. p. 322, c. &c.); and, accordingly, explains how they are developed by means of education, instruction, and laws (p. 325, c. &c., comp. 340, c.). He is not able, however, to define more exactly the difference between the beautiful and the pleasant, and at last again contents himself with affirming that pleasure or enjoyment is the proper aim of the good (p. 354, &c.). In just as confused a manner does he express himself with respect to the virtues, of which he admits five (holiness, dσións,—and four others), and with regard to which he maintains that they are distinguished from each other in the same way as the parts of the countenance (ib. p. 349, b., 329, c., &c.). As in these ethical opinions of Protagoras we see a want of scientific perception, so do we perceive in his conception of the Heracleitean doctrine of the eternal flow of all things, and the way in which he carries it out, a sophistical endeavour to establish, freed from the fetters of science, his subjective notions, setting aside the Heracleitean assumption of a higher cognition, and a community of rational activity (§uvos λóyos), by means of rhetorical art. That he was master of this in a high degree, the testimonies of the ancients leave indubitable. His endeavours, moreover, were mainly directed to the communication of this art by means of instruction (Plat. Prot. p. 312, c.), to render men capable of acting and speaking with readiness in domestic and political affairs (ib. p. 318, e.). He would teach how to make the weaker cause the stronger (τὸν ἥττω λόγον κρείττω ποιεῖν, Arist. Rhet. ii. 24; A. Gellius, N. A. v. 3; Eudoxus, in Steph. Byz. s. v. *A6dnpa; comp. Aristoph. Nub. 113, &c. 245, &c. 873, 874, 879, &c.). By way of practice in the art he was accustomed to make his pupils discuss Theses (communes loci) on opposite sides (antinomically) (Diog. Laërt. ix. 52, &c.; comp. Suid. s. v.; Dionys. Halic. Isocr. Timon in Diog. Laërt. ix. 52; Sext. Emp. adv. Math. ix. 57; Cic. Brut. 12); an exercise which is also recommended by Cicero (ad Att. ix. 4), and Quintilian (x. 5. § 10). The method of doing so was probably unfolded in his Art of Dispute (Téxη èpioTIKOV, see above). But he also directed his attention to language, endeavoured to explain difficult passages in the poets, though not always with the best success (Plat. Prot. p. 388, c. &c.; comp. respecting his and the opposed Platonic exposition of the well-known lines of Simonides, Frei, p. 122, &c.); entered at some length into the threefold gender of names (ἄῤῥενα, θήλεα, and σκεύη, Arist. Rhct. iii. 5, El. Soph. c. 14; comp. Aristoph. Nub,

645, &c.), and the tenses and moods of verbs (Diog. Laërt. ix 52, 53; Quintil. iii. 4. § 10; Frei, l. c. p. 133, &c.). Although Protagoras left it to his pupils to fix the amount of his fees in proportion to the profit they considered themselves to have derived from his lessons (Plat. Prot. p. 328. b.; Arist. Eth. Nic. ix. 1), he-the first who demanded payment for instruction and lecturesnevertheless obtained an amount of wealth which became proverbial. (Plat. Hipp. Maj. p. 282, c., Meno, p. 91, d., Theaet. p. 161, a., 179, a.; Quintil. ii. 1. § 10; Diog. Laërt. ix. 52, 50, &c.) [Ch. A. B.] PROTAGOʻRIDES (пpwrayopídns), of Cyzicus, a writer only known to us from Athenaeus, who refers to three of his works:-1. Пepi Aapvikŵv avov, on the games celebrated at Daphne, a village in the neighbourhood of Antioch (iv. pp. 150, c., 176, a., 183, f.). 2. Kwμikal 'loтopíai, a history of Comedy (iii. p. 124, e.). 3. 'Akpoάσeis parikal, love tales (iv. p. 162, c.).

PROTARCHUS (Пpúraрxos), an engraver of precious stones, whose name occurs on a very beautiful gem in the Florentine Museum, which represents Eros charming a hon with the harp. Formerly the artist's name was misread Пraрxos. (Gal. di Firenz, Gemm. ii. 1; Müller, Archäol. d. Kunst, § 391, n. 4.)

[P.S.]

PROTEAS (Пpwréas). 1. An Athenian general in the time of the Peloponnesian war, the son of Epicles. He was one of the three commanders of the squadron sent out to assist the Corcyraeans in their contest with the Corinthians. Again, in the first year of the Peloponnesian war (B. C. 431), Proteas was one of the three commanders of the fleet of 100 ships, sent round Peloponnesus (Thuc. i. 45, ii. 23).

2. A Macedonian officer, the son of Andronicus. He was employed by Antipater in collecting a squadron with which to defend the islands and coasts of Greece against the Phoenicians and others in the service of Persia, and succeeded in capturing, at Siphnus, 8 out of a squadron of 10 ships, with which Datames was there stationed. (Arrian, Anab. ii. 2. § 7-11.)

between him and his wife Laodameia, the daughter of Acastus. When she heard of the death of her husband, she prayed to the infernal gods to be allowed to converse with him only for the space of three hours. The prayer being granted, Hermes conducted Protesilaus for a few hours to the upper world, and when Protesilaus died a second time, Laodameia expired with him (Hygin. Fab. 108; Eustath. p. 325). This story, from which the account of Lucian differs only slightly, has been variously modified by the poets, for, according to some, Laodameia, after the second death of her husband, made an image of him, which she worshipped, and when her father Acastus ordered her to burn it, she threw herself with the image into the flames (Hygin. Fab. 104). According to others, Protesilaus, on returning from the lower world, found his wife embracing his image, and when he died the second time, he begged of her not to follow too late, whereupon she killed herself with a sword. Others again relate that Laodameia, being compelled by her father to marry another man, spent her nights with the image of Protesilaus (Eustath. I. c.); but Conon (Narrat. 13), lastly, has quite a different tradition, for according to him, Protesilaus, after the Trojan war, took with him Aethylla, a sister of Priam, who was his prisoner. When, on his homeward voyage, he landed on the Macedonian peninsula of Pallene, between Mende and Scione, and had gone some distance from the coast, to fetch water, Aethylla prevailed upon the other women to set fire to the ships. Protesilaus, accordingly, was obliged to remain there, and built the town of Scione.

His tomb was shown near Eleus, in the Thracian Chersonesus (Strab. xiii. p. 595; Paus. i. 34. § 2; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 532). There was a belief that nymphs had planted elm-trees around his grave, and that those of their branches which grew on the Trojan side were sooner green than the others, but that at the same time the foliage faded and died earlier (Philostr. Her. ii. 1); or it was said that the trees, when they had grown so high as to see Troy, died away, and that fresh shoots then sprang from their roots (Plin. H. N. xvi. 99; Anthol.

4. Grandson of the former, and, like him, notorious for his propensity to drinking. (Athen. iv. p. 129. a.; Photius, Cod. 190. p. 148. a., ed. Bekker.) [C. P. M.] PROTESILA'US (Пρwтeσíλαos), a son of Iphiclus and Astyoche, and accordingly a brother of Podarces, belonged to Phylace in Thessaly, whence he is called Þuλáкios (Lucian, Dial. Mort. 23. 1; Hom. Il. ii. 705; Eustath. ad Hom. p. 323), though this name may also be traced to his being a grandson of the Aeolid Phylacus. He led the warriors of several Thessalian places against Troy, and was the first of all the Greeks that was killed by the Trojans, for he was the first who leaped from the ships upon the Trojan coast (Hom. I. ii. 695, &c. xiii. 681, xv. 705; Philostr. Her. ii. 15). According to the common tradition Protesilaus was slain by Hector (Lucian, l. c.; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 245, 528, 530; Hygin. Fab. 103; Ov. Met. xii. 67), but, according to others, he fell by the hands of Achates (Eustath. ad Hom. p. 326), of Aeneas (Dict. Cret. ii. 11), or of Euphorbos (Eustath. l. c. p. 325). Protesilaus is most celebrated in ancient story for the strong affection and fidelity existing

erected to Protesilaus at Eleus, and a sanctuary, at which funeral games were celebrated, existed in Phylace (Herod. vii. 33, 116, 120; Paus. iii. 4. § 5; Pind. Isthm. i. 83, with the Schol.). Protesilaus himself was represented in the Lesche at Delphi. (Paus. x. 30. § 1.) [L. S.]

PROTEUS (Пpwтeús), the prophetic old man of the sea (axios yépwv), occurs in the earliest legends as a subject of Poseidon, and is described as seeing through the whole depth of the sea, and tending the flocks (the seals) of Poseidon (Hom. Od. iv. 365, 385, 400; Virg. Georg. iv. 392; Theocr. ii. 58; Horat. Carm. i. 2. 7; Philostr. Icon. ii. 17). He resided in the island of Pharos, at the distance of one day's journey from the river Aegyptus (Nile), whence he is also called the Egyptian (Hom. Od. iv. 355, 385). Virgil, however, instead of Pharos, mentions the island of Carpathos, between Crete and Rhodes (Georg. iv. 387; comp. Hom. Il. ii. 676), whereas, according to the same poet, Proteus was born in Thessaly (Georg. iv. 390, comp. Aen. xi. 262). His life is described as follows. At midday he rises from the flood, and sleeps in the shadow of the rocks of the coast, and around him lie the monsters of the deep (Hom. Od.

iv. 400; Virg. Georg. iv. 395). Any one wishing to compel him to foretell the future, was obliged to catch hold of him at that time; he, indeed, had the power of assuming every possible shape, in order to escape the necessity of prophesying, but whenever he saw that his endeavours were of no avail, he resumed his usual appearance, and told the truth (Hom. Od. iv. 410, &c. 455, &c.; Ov. Art. Am. i. 761, Fast. i. 369; Philostr. Vit. Apoll. i. 4). When he had finished his prophecy he returned into the sea (Hom. Od. iv. 570). Homer (Od. iv. 365) ascribes to him one daughter, Eidothea, but Strabo (x. p. 472) mentions Cabeiro as a second, and Zenodotus (ap. Eustath. ad Hom. p. 1500) mentions Eurynome instead of Eidothea. He is sometimes represented as riding through the sea, in a chariot drawn by Hippocampae. (Virg. Georg. iv. 389.)

Another set of traditions describes Proteus as a son of Poseidon, and as a king of Egypt, who had two sons, Telegonus and Polygonus or Tmolus. (Apollod. ii. 5. § 9; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 124.) Diodorus however observes (i. 62), that only the Greeks called him Proteus, and that the Egyptians called him Cetes. His wife is called Psamathe (Eurip. Hel. 7) or Torone (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 115), and, besides the above mentioned sons, Theoclymenus and Theonoë are likewise called his children. (Eurip. Hel. 9, 13.) He is said to have hospitably received Dionysus during his wanderings (Apollod. iii. 5. § 1), and Hermes brought to him Helena after her abduction (Eurip. Hel. 46), or, according to others, Proteus himself took her from Paris, gave to the lover a phantom, and restored the true Helen to Menelaus after his return from Troy. (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 112, 820; Herod. ii. 112, 118.) The story further relates that Proteus was originally an Egyptian, but that he went to Thrace and there married Torone. But as his sons by her used great violence towards strangers, he prayed to his father Poseidon to carry him back to Egypt. Poseidon accordingly opened a chasm in the earth in Pallene, and through a passage passing through the earth under the sea he led him back into Egypt. (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 124; Eustath. ad Hom. p. 686.) A second personage of the name of Proteus is mentioned by Apollodorus (ii. 1. § 5) among the sons of Aegyptus.. [L. S.] PROTHOENOR (Пpwłońvwp), a son of Areilycus, was one of the leaders of the Boeotians against Troy, where he was slain by Polydamas. (Hom. Il. ii. 495, xiv. 450, &c.)

[L. S.]

2. A daughter of Calydon and Aeolia. (Apollod. i. 7. § 7.) [L. S.] PROTO GENES (Пpwтоyérns), the chief instrument of the cruelties of the emperor Caligula, used to carry about him two books, one called the sword, and the other the dagger, in which were entered the names of the persons destined for death. These books were found, after the emperor's death, in his secret depositaries. They were burnt by order of Claudius, who likewise put Protogenes to death. (Dion Cass. lix. 26, lx. 4; Suet. Cal. 27 ; Oros. vii. 5.) 1.

PROTO GENES (Прwтоyévns), artists. One of the most celebrated Greek painters, lived at the period of the greatest perfection of the art, and was contemporary with Apelles, about Ol. 112, B. c. 332. Almost all we know of him is contained in a passage of Pliny, the text of which is very much corrupted, yet not so as to affect any essential point in the history of the artist or his works. (Plin. H. N. xxxv. 10. s. 36. § 20.)

Protogenes was a native of Caunus, in Caria, a city subject to the Rhodians.* (Comp. Paus. i. 3. 4; Plut. Demetr. 22: Suidas makes him a native of Xanthus, in Lycia, s. v.) He resided at Rhodes almost entirely; the only other city of Greece which he is said to have visited is Athens, where he executed one of his great works in the Propylaea. He appears to have been one of those men, who, combining the highest genius with modesty and contentment, only obtain by the exertions of generous friends the reputation which they have earned by their own merits. Up to his fiftieth year he is said to have lived in poverty and in comparative obscurity, supporting himself by painting ships, which at that period used to be decorated with elaborate pictorial devices. His fame had, however, reached the ears of Apelles, who, upon visiting Rhodes, made it his first business to seek out Protogenes. The interesting trial of skill, by which the two artists introduced themselves to each other, has been related under APELLES. As the surest way of making the merits of Protogenes known to his fellow-citizens, Apelles offered him, for his finished works, on which Protogenes himself had set a very insignificant price, the enormous sum of fifty talents apiece (quinqua genis talentis), at the same time spreading the report, that he intended to sell the pictures as his own. The Rhodians were thus roused to an understanding of what an artist they had among them; and Apelles at once confirmed the impression, and made those who were anxious to retain such valuable works in their country pay for their previous indifference, by refusing to part with them except for an advanced price. (Plin. c. § 13.)

We possess the record of another interesting scene in the artist's tranquil life. When Demetrius Poliorcetes was using every effort to subdue Rhodes, he refrained from attacking the city at its most vul nerable point, lest he should injure the masterpiece of Protogenes, his Ialysus, which had been placed

The words of Pliny, gentis Rhodiis subjectae, which have given the critics much trouble, are now established as the true reading by the authority of the Bamber MS., confirmed by historical testimonies as to the matter of fact. (See Janus's collation of the Bamberg MS. appended to Sillig's edition of Pliny.)