and clemency gained him the hearts of his new subjects at the very beginning of his reign, but did not prevent some court conspiracies. At the same time his arms met with disgrace in Sicily and Syria, nor did he retrieve his fortune when he took the field in person. The Arabs worsted him near Azar in Syria, and he only escaped captivity by shutting himself up in Antioch (1030), whence he hastened to Constantinople. His lieutenants Nicetas and Simeon, and especially Theoctistes, however, soon restored the honour of the Greek armies. Their success so mortified Argyrus that he became the prey of a deep melancholy, and only occupied himself with building churches and convents, his wife Zoë seizing the reins of the empire. Meanwhile the war with the Arabs was carried on with varying success, till at last the Greeks obtained great advantages in a decisive naval engagement, and by the conquest of Edessa, which was obliged to surrender in 1033. But the plague ravaged the provinces, and in the North the Patzinegues, and other barbarians made destructive inroads. These disasters roused Romanus from his indolence. But it was too late: he had made himself unpopular for ever, and his own family had become strangers to him. The more his generals were successful against the Arabs, the more the nation became convinced that without him still greater advantages might be obtained. Hence arose a criminal intrigue betweeen Zoë, an ambitious and voluptuous wife, though past fifty, and the general Michael, surnamed Paphlago. Zoë administered a slow poison to her husband, in consequence of which he died a lingering death (1034), which was accelerated by the cruel deed of Zoe's assistants, who held the enfeebled emperor, who was taking a bath, under water till life was nearly gone. Half dead, he was taken out and placed on a bed, when his wife despatched him by a dose of active poison. Romanus died at the age of sixty-six, and was succeeded by Michael IV. the Paphlagonian, who married Zoë. It is certain that Romanus left no issue by Zoë, and it is doubtful whether he had any by Helena; but his family continued to flourish in Constantinople down to its capture by the Turks, and more than 150 years afterwards. (Cedren. p. 722, &c.; Zonar. vol. ii. p. 229, &c.; Manass. p. 123; Glyc. p. 311, &c.) [W. P.]

the throne. After the death of Constantine, and during the reign of his widow Eudoxia, he became bolder; but his manoeuvres were seen through, and he was arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. Previous to execution he was presented to the empress; and as he had obtained great military renown, and was besides a remarkably handsome man, he made such a visible impression upon Eudoxia, that his judges thought it convenient to annul their sentence, in consequence of which he was sent into nominal exile in his native country Cappadocia. Two days after his departure he was joined by some messengers of the empress, who ordered him to return to Constantinople. At his arrival there he was immediately appointed commander-in-chief of the army. The end of this farce was his marriage with the empress, and his proclamation as emperor three days after their marriage. Constantine X., however, had left three sons, who considered themselves prejudiced through the accession of Romanus, and entered into a dangerous plot against his life; but their mother succeeded in pacifying them, and submitting them to her authority. There remained, however, a strong party of malcontents at the court, composed of eminent and high-born men. Romanus, active and energetic, not only counteracted their plans, but introduced measures of radical reform into the corrupted administration, and freed himself from the authority of his wife, by leaving Constantinople and keeping his court on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus.

To these domestic quarrels the Turks put a sudden end. Their sultan, Alp-Arslán, approached by rapid marches from the shores of the Caspian and the highlands of northern Persia, while one of his lieutenants attacked Syria. Romanus took the field against them with his usual energy and promptitude. His intention was to cover Syria, and he was already on its frontiers when he was informed of the progress of the Turkish arms in the North. He consequently left Syria to his generals, and marched to Pontus with such rapidity, that he surprised and routed several Turkish bodies stationed on its frontier. This was sufficient to keep the main body of the Turks within Persia. Ro manus therefore hastened back to Syria. He made a successful campaign down to Antioch and up again along the Euphrates, and wherever he carried ROMA'NUS IV. DIO'GENES ('Pwuaròs o his arms the enemy was worsted. One of his geAloyévns), Byzantine emperor from A. D. 1067-nerals, less fortunate, or less skilful, was surprised 1071, was the son of one Constantine Diogenes, a by the Turks, and lost the day and half of his rather extravagant character, who conspired against army. Romanus flew to his support; and in a the emperor Romanus Argyrus, but escaped pursuit nocturnal engagement, took the camp of the Turks by leaping out of a high window. Romanus Dio- and routed them with great slaughter (20th of genes was the grand-nephew of Romanus Argyrus, November, 1068). He then marched again up through his mother; and enjoying the patronage the Euphrates as far as Ara, constantly annoyed of the court notwithstanding his father's conduct, by the light troops of the enemy; but he placed soon rose to the dignities of patrician and duke of his troops in good and safe winter-quarters, and Sardica or Triaditza. In the reign of Constantine returned to the capital. Eudoxia, reconciled to X. Ducas, he solicited the place of Magnus Ves- her husband, had meanwhile governed the state tiarius, and having received the answer: "Deserve with wisdom; and, in acknowledgment of the vicit through your merits," forth with returned to Sar- tories of the emperor, presented him with a sort of dica, sallied out with the garrison, and routed a miscellaneous work, entitled "Ionia," which she party of Patzinegue marauders, of whose heads had just finished. The campaign was renewed in he sent a collection to Constantinople. The em- 1069, and the imperial arms were again successful, peror returned the compliment by granting him the though not uniformly so, as the Turks succeeded desired appointment, adding: "You owe your pre- in taking and pillaging Iconium. The third camferment not to me, but to your sword." This paign, in 1070, was carried on under the commandpiqued Romanus; and from that time he enter-in-chief of Manuel Comnenus, the emperor requir tained schemes of rebellion and of raising himself to ing repose after so many fatigues. Ere long, news

VOL. III.

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fine.

ROMI'LIUS MARCELLUS, one of the centurions of the army in Germany, who espoused the cause of Galba, and was in consequence put to death. (Tac. Hist. i. 56, 59.)

ROMİ'LIUS PO'LLIO. [POLLIO.] ROMU'LIUS DENTER, is said to have been appointed praefectus urbi by Romulus. (Tac. Ann. vi. 11.)

RO'MULUS, the founder of the city of Rome. It is unnecessary in the present work to prove that all the stories about Romulus are mythical, and merely represent the traditional belief of the Roman people respecting their origin. Romulus, which is only a lengthened form of Romus, is simply the Roman people represented as an individual, and must be placed in the same category as Aeolus, Dorus, and Ion, the reputed ancestors of the Aeolians, Dorians, and Ionians, owing to the universal practice of antiquity to represent nations as springing from eponymous. ancestors. But although none of the tales about Romulus can be received as an historical fact, yet it is of importance to know the general belief of the Roman people respecting the life of the founder of their city. It is, however, very difficult to ascertain the original form of the legend; since poets, on the one hand, embellished it with the creations of their own fancy, and historians, on the other hand, omitted many of its most marvellous incidents, in order to reduce it to the form of a probable history. The various tales related respecting the foundation of Rome may be reduced to two classes, one of Greek and the other of native origin. The former bring Romulus into close connection with Aeneas. A few Greek writers make Aeneas the founder of Rome, and speak of his wife under the name of Roma; others represent Romulus as his son or a remote descendant; but the greater part make him his grandson by his daughter Ilia. In most of these accounts the twin brothers are spoken of, but they appear under the names of Romulus and Romus, not Remus (comp. Dionys. i. 72, 73; Plut. Rom. 2, 3; Serv. ad Virg. Aen. i. 274; Festus, s. v. Roma). These accounts, however, scarcely deserve the name of traditions, as Niebuhr has remarked; they are for the most part the inventions of Greek writers, who were ignorant of the native legend, but having heard of the fame of Rome, wished to assign to it an origin.

reached the court that Manuel had been defeated | with his colleague, and sentenced to pay a heavy and taken prisoner. The emperor was artfully persuaded by some false friends to refrain from taking the command once more, and matters would have taken a bad turn, but for the rare shrewdness of Manuel. It happened that Chrysoscul, the victorious Turkish general, pretended to have a better right to the sultanship than Alp-Arslán, and Manuel was no sooner aware of it than, a real Comnene as he was, he persuaded him to desert the sultan, and fly with him to Constantinople, promising him the assistance of the emperor for the recovery of his rights. The vanquished thus led his victor to Constantinople, to the utmost astonishment of the court. Romanus took as much advantage of this strange incident as circumstances would allow; and, in 1071, again set out in person against Alp-Arslán. But little acquainted with human baseness, he left many of his real friends at home, and took with him many a secret enemy invested with high power. He penetrated as far as the Araxes, not without a manly resistance from the Turks and many a partial defeat of his generals. His position in those wild regions became dangerous, but he stoutly refused the peace cffered to him by the sultan. Upon this a pitched battle was fought at Manzicert on the Araxes (26th of August, 1071); and owing to the treachery of some of his officers, no less than to the valour of AlpArslán, Romanus lost the day and his liberty. It has been said that the noble sultan ill-treated his captive, but this is not true, on the contrary he received him well, and discoursed with him as a friend. "What would you have done with me," asked the sultan, "if I had been your prisoner?" "Beaten you to death," was the Byzantine's answer. "I will treat you differently," replied the barbarian infidel, "and according to the precepts of your own religion, which commands humanity and forgiveness of injuries." Alp-Arslán accordingly gave him 10,000 pieces of gold, and all those prisoners whom the emperor chose to pick out. Upon this a peace was concluded on equitable terms, except a ransom of 1,500,000, and an annual tribute of 360,000 pieces of gold. Romanus shed tears when he took leave of his noble victor, who allowed him to return to Constantinople before the conditions of the treaty of peace were fulfilled. The news of this disaster caused a complete revolution in the capital, so that when Romanus appeared at its gates, he was refused admittance. Michael Parapinaces had been raised to the imperial dignity, but Romanus did his utmost to crush him and recover his throne. He was not successful. Twice defeated in pitched battles, he at last surrendered, and was put to death by order of Michael. Romanus left three sons, of whom Nicephorus made himself conspicuous in after years. The reign of Romanus Diogenes, though short, is full of highly interesting events, especially of military adventures, such as those of the noble Scot Ursel or Russell Baliol, but space forbids us to enter upon these details. (Zonar. vol. ii. p. 277, &c. ; Glycas, p. 326, &c.; Manass. p. 131; Bryenn. p. 112, &c., in the Paris editions.) [W. P.] T. ROMILIUS ROCUS VATICA NUS, was consul B. c. 455, with C. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus, and was a member of the first decemvirate, B. c. 451 (Liv. iii. 31, 33; Dionys. x. 33, &c. ; 56). Respecting the events in the year of his consulship, Bee CICURINUS, No. 4. He was condemned along

The old Roman legend was of a very different kind. It was preserved in popular poems, which were handed down from generation to generation, and some of which were in existence in the time of Dionysius (i. 79); and it seems to have been recorded in prose in its most genuine form by the annalist Q. Fabius Pictor, who lived during the second Punic War. This legend probably ran nearly as follows:-At Alba Longa there reigned a succession of kings, descended from Iulus, the son of Aeneas. One of the last of these kings left two sons, Numitor and Amulius. The latter, who was the younger, deprived Numitor of the kingdom, but allowed him to live in the enjoyment of his private fortune. Fearful, however, lest the heirs of Numitor might not submit so quietly to his usurpation, he caused his only son to be murdered, and made his daughter Silvia

Many writers call her Rhea or Rea Silvia. Nie

one of the Vestal virgins. As Silvia one day went into the sacred grove, to draw water for the service of the goddess, a wolf met her, and she fled into a cave for safety; there, while a total eclipse obscured the sun, Mars himself overpowered her, and then consoled her with the promise that she should be the mother of heroic children (Serv. ad Virg. Aen. i. 274; Dionys. ii. 56; Plut. Rom. 27). When her time came, she brought forth twins. Amulius doomed the guilty Vestal and her babes to be drowned in the river. In the Anio Silvia exchanged her earthly life for that of a goddess, and became the wife of the river-god. The stream carried the cradle in which the children were lying into the Tiber, which had overflowed its banks far and wide. It was stranded at the foot of the Palatine, and overturned on the root of a wild figtree, which, under the name of the Ficus Ruminalis, was preserved and held sacred for many ages after. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the stream, carried them into her den hard by, and suckled them; and there, when they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird sacred to Mars, brought it to them (Ov. Fast. iii. 54). At length this marvellous spectacle was seen by Faustulus, the king's shepherd, who took the children to his own house, and gave them to the care of his wife, Acca Larentia. They were called Romulus and Remus, and grew up along with the twelve sons of their foster-parents, on the Palatine hill (Massurius Sabinus, ap. Gell. vi. 7). They were, however, distinguished from their comrades by the beauty of their person and the bravery of their deeds, and became the acknowledged leaders of the other shepherd youths, with whom they fought boldly against wild beasts and robbers. The followers of Romulus were called Quintilii; those of Remus, Fabii. A quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled their cattle on the neighbouring hill of the Aventine. Remus was taken by a stratagem, during the absence of his brother, and carried off to Numitor. His age and noble bearing made Numitor think of his grandsons; and his suspicions were confirmed by the tale of the marvellous nurture of the twin brothers. Meanwhile Romulus hastened with his foster-father to Numitor; suspicion was changed into certainty, and the old man recognised them as his grandsons. They now resolved to avenge the wrongs which their family had suffered. With the help of their faithful comrades, who had flocked to Alba to rescue Remus, they slew Amulius, and placed Numitor on the throne.

Alba. As the brothers possessed equal authority and power, a strife arose between them where the city should be built, who should be its founder, and after whose name it should be called. Romulus wished to build it on the Palatine, Remus on the Aventine, or, according to another tradition, on another hill three or four miles lower down the river, called Remuria or Remoria, which Niebuhr supposes to be the hill beyond S. Paolo (comp. Dionys. i. 85; Plut. Rom. 9).* It was agreed that the question should be decided by augury; and each took his station on the top of his chosen hill. The night passed away, and as the day was dawning Remus saw six vultures; but at sun-rise, when these tidings were brought to Romulus, twelve vultures flew by him. Each claimed the augury in his own favour; but most of the shepherds decided for Romulus, and Remus was therefore obliged to yield. Romulus now proceeded to mark out the pomoerium of his city (see Dict. of Ant. s. v.). He yoked a bullock and a heifer to a plough with a copper ploughshare, and drew a deep furrow round the foot of the Palatine, so as to include a considerable compass below the hill; and men followed after who turned every clod to the inward side. Where the gates were to be made, the plough was carried over the space; since otherwise nothing unclean could have entered the city, as the track of the plough was holy. In the comitium a vault was built under ground, which was filled with the first-fruits of all the natural productions that support human life, and with earth which each of the settlers had brought with him from his home. This place was called Mundus, and was believed to be the entrance to the lower world (Festus, s. v. Mundus; Plut. Rom. 11). Rome is said to have been founded on the 21st of April, and this day was celebrated as a yearly festival down to the latest times of Roman history. It was the Palilia, or festival of Pales, the divinity of the shepherds, and was, therefore, a day well fitted for the foundation of a city by shepherds (see Dict. of Ant. s. v. Palilia). On the line of the pomoerium Romulus began to raise a wall. Remus, who still resented the wrong he had suffered, leapt over it in scorn, whereupon Romulus slew him, saying, "So die whosoever hereafter shall leap over my walls;" though, according to another account, he was killed by Celer, who had the charge of the building. Remorse now seized Romulus, and he rejected all food and comfort, till at length he appeased the shade of Remus by instituting the festival of the Lemuria for the souls of the departed Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, and (Ov. Fast. v. 461, &c.). Afterwards an empty therefore left Alba to found a city on the banks of throne was set by the side of Romulus, with a the Tiber. They were accompanied only by their sceptre and crown, that his brother might seem to old comrades, the shepherds. The story which reign with him (Serv. ad Virg. Aen. i. 276). makes them joined by the Alban nobles, is no part | Thus in the earliest legends we find the supreme of the old legend; since the Julii and similar power divided between two persons; but it is not families do not appear till after the destruction of impossible that the belief in the double kingdom of Romulus and Remus, as well as subsequently in

buhr remarks that Rhea is a corruption introduced by the editors, apparently from thinking of the goddess Rhea; whereas Rea seems to have signified nothing more than the culprit, reminding us of the expression Rea femina, which often occurs in Boccaccio. Niebuhr also calls attention to the remark of Perizonius, that when the mother of Romulus is represented as the daughter of Aeneas, she is always called Ilia, and that Rea is never prefixed to the latter name. (Hist. of Rome, vol. i. p. 211.)

* In his Lectures on Roman history (pp. 39, 40, ed. Schmitz, 1848) Niebuhr brings forward many reasons to prove what he had hinted at in his History (vol. i. note 618), that the latter hill was the one mentioned in the ancient tradition, and that the story relating to it was afterwards transferred to the Aventine, since this hill was the special abode of the plebeians, and there existed between it and the Palatine a perpetual feud.

The original site of Rome was on the Palatine hill. On this there was a Latin colony established RO'MULUS, artists. 1. A sculptor of sarcoat the earliest times, which formed an independent phagi, whose name is found inscribed on one side On the neighbouring hills there appear to of a splendid sarcophagus in the Villa Medici. have been also settlements of Sabines and Etrus (Guattani, Monum. Ined. vol. i. p. lvii.; R. Rocans, the former probably on the Quirinal and Cachette, Lettre à M. Schorn, p. 398, 2d ed.)