mend; it is short and easy, and we may remark, for the encouragement of the timid, there is no need to carry it to the extent required by architects. As we proceed with our lessons, our pupils will easily find out for themselves how much is requisite, because, according to the class of subject we are drawing, occasions will present themselves which will make it necessary for us to refer to those rules which are applicable to the case, and most of which will be found already given in the previous pages of the POPULAR EDUCATOR.

e

e

on the line of sight. In general practice we must so place ourselves, when we are looking down a street, that the parallel sides of the street shall be parallel to the imaginary line called the direction of sight, which goes from the eye to the PS-in other words, the sides of the street must retire at right angles with our position. Fig. 3 is a plan representing our position, or station point at a; b the point of sight opposite the eye; da the sides of the street which, when parallel with each other, and also when they retire directly, or at a right angle from us, have the PS (point of sight) for their vanishing point; the sides e and ƒ are parallel with our position, and consequently are drawn across the picture. In our view (Fig. 2) Ps is the point of sight, and all the lines of the buildings on the right vanish at

b

d

C

We will now direct the attention of our pupils to Fig. 2, which is nothing more than an arrangement of straight lines in various directions, each of which, whatever the direction may be, is subject to some especial rule for its treatment. The view we have selected (and we call it a view, because we wish to talk about it to our pupils as though we were actually out of doors in front of it) is as practical and simple as we could select it is taken from a small street in one of our Yorkshire towns. We have just said, "it is an arrangement of straight lines in various directions." Now lines in the positions of those which compose our subject are so common, that there will scarcely be found an out-door scene which does not contain them; therefore the observations we are about to make will be found not only applicable to thousands of a similar description, but to numerous others of a much more ambitious character. If we were drawing the interior of a cathedral, we should have to repeat all that we have to say here, with as much more as might be rendered necessary by the different positions of other lines found in the cathedral. Our pupils must now refer back to Lesson III. (Vol. I., page 71), and read again the fixed principles relating to retiring lines and planes, as we are about to show how they may assist us to understand and draw the lines of the houses before us. The instructions we speak of referred more immediately to drawing from copies; we will now make them applicable to drawing from nature; and if they have been clearly understood in the former case, we have an easy task before us. Let us suppose that we are seated opposite the end of the street, at about twenty or thirty yards from the nearest building, and that we have looked it over before we begin, and ascertained which lines retire from, and which are parallel with our position, and have particularly observed the general arrangement and the cha

d

Fig. 3.

The direction of sight.

racter of the details. We must first determine the line of sight, or as it is sometimes called, the horizontal line, HL; by holding the pencil horizontally before the eye, and noting the places where it cuts the lines of the subject, it will be seen in our view to cross the door on the right hand at about one-third from the top. This is a very necessary step to take at the commencement, and must not be omitted, when we know that all horizontal retiring lines have their vanishing points on the line of sight. Our next consideration will be, if we find that half of the subject upwards is above the eye (that is, the HL), and the other half below it, then the HL will be drawn across the middle of the paper; if the HL is placed as in the view before us, at about two-thirds from the top of the subject, then the line must be drawn at two-thirds of the distance from the top to the bottom of the paper. Afterwards we must determine the position of the point of sight: this is always opposite the eye

it-viz., the eaves of the roof, the tops and bottoms of the windows, the tops of the doors, the foundation line, and the courses of the bricks, all these lines being parallel with each other, and at right angles with our position. The lines of the building on the left vanish at VP1, because they do not retire in the same direction, the two sides of the street in this case not being parallel.

It is not a difficult matter to determine precisely where the point of sight is to be found. If the pupil will do as we recommended in the last lesson-that is, hold his pencil between his eye and one of the upper retiring lines, say the eaves, so that the line of the eaves shall coincide with, or be made apparently

to lie upon the length of the pencil, and when thus placed, carry his eye downwards along the pencil until it comes to the line of sight-he will find the pencil directed to the point opposite the eye. This can be proved by placing the pencil upon another line which is parallel to the eaves, say the foundation line of the wall; the pencil thus placed will point in the same direction, and it would do the same if it be made to coincide with the tops of the doors, or with any other lines that may be parallel with them. There is another way of proving that the point of sight is the vanishing point for lines going off at a right angle with our position: if we hold out our arm horizontally, and place it in a parallel position with the retiring side of the street, we shall find we are pointing to the point of sight. Let the pupil try this, which he can do in a room, if he places himself in such a position, that on looking before him the direction of sight shall be parallel to the sides of the room on the right hand and the left (see Fig. 3). We shall have to refer to this again when we place ourselves before a subject in which there is a building having an angle towards us, and not a side; we especially request our pupils to read again Lessons in Drawing, III. and IV., Vol. I., pages 72, 103. The first line that the pupil must mark in (we do not advise him to draw any lines until he has first determined the places of all the principal ones) will be the one nearest the PS. Let this be the course of procedure in all cases, that is, when arranging the positions of the lines he must begin from the point of sight, and as he passes on, if to the right, mark the place for each line which crosses the line of sight as he comes to it, then take up those lines on the left, commencing from the PS, and treat them in the same way; then he must determine the heights of the perpendicular lines drawn through these points of position. He must exercise his judgment in this matter by the comparison of widths and heights in the original.

a

LESSONS IN LATIN.-XXX.

CONSTRUCTION-DEPONENT VERBS (continued).

I AM about to use the words construction and construed, and will first explain them. Construction (from cum, with, and struo, I pile) refers primarily to the putting together of the parts of a building. Hence, in application to composition, it is the putting together of the parts of a sentence. But that putting together in Latin depends on the usages of Latin authors. Those usages we ascertain from their works. Accordingly, a statement of those usages gives the construction, or the proper way of putting words together, in any given case. The construction of hortor is the particular kind of words which it takes in connection with itself, and the conditions under which they are to appear. Thus, hortor requires its object to be in the accusative case. Consequently, we say that hortor is construed with the accusative. This is the application of the word with which we have to do. Another application is, that when to construe is used in the sense to translate, translation, or putting the sense of a passage from one language into another, is called construing, because, in order to translate, you must first ascertain what words are to be taken together, and know how, and according to what rule, they depend on one another. It is the office of Syntax to give systematic instructions in construction. But the way may be smoothed, and the advantages of repetition gained, if we begin now to supply individual instances.

CONSTRUCTION OF "HORTOR."

Aliquem; aliquem ad, in aliquid; ut ne, with the conjunctive; de aliqua re, aliquid; with the infinitive.

The terms and forms here employed must be explained. This explanation will serve once for all. Aliquem means that hortor takes an accusative case as its object: for example, hortor aliquem, I encourage some one: aliquem ad aliquid means that, if occasion require, you construe hortor thus: hortor aliquem ad virtutem, I encourage some one to (strive after) virtue. Where observe that aliquid is added to show that an accusative case must come after the preposition ad. Again, aliquem in aliquid means that you may use in instead of ad: for example, hortor te in prælium, I encourage thee towards (for) the fight. The ut, and ne mean that with hortor these particles are employed, of course, in their proper meaning, and that they require the verb which is dependent on them to be in the subjunctive mood. The rest of the "Construction' will now be readily understood, and I place before you instances.

Hortor with the accusative of the person (aliquem): "Hæc eo spectant ut te horter et suadeam."-Cæsar. Literal Translation :-" These things thither look that thee I may encourage and persuade."

You now have before your eyes an English instance of inversion. In the second of these translations with such words is placed early in the sentence, whereas in the first they stand at its close. The first sentence is therefore said to be an inverted sentence, or to have an inversion in it. In English the latitude of inversion is small. It is great in Latin, as is exemplified in the distance at which the adjective paribus stands from the noun dictis which it qualifies.

If you will compare together my literal translations and my idiomatic translations, you will ascertain that in the second there is often a departure from the construction observed in the first. The construction observed in the first is necessitated by the construction of the Latin: were not the former strictly to follow in form and order the latter, it would not answer the ' purpose I have in view; namely, first, to show you in English words Latin sentences rendered exactly as they are, or as nearly as may be; and secondly, to lead you, by your com paring the two together, to see how the idioms of the two languages differ. You never can put Latin into English, or English into Latin, with correctness, until you know the peculiarities of the Latin and English idioms, and know also how the one stands relatively to the other. In some cases you will find the idioms of the two languages similar, in others they differ greatly. When the difference is great, great is the difficulty of making a good translation. You will be much assisted in the attempt if you follow the plan I here follow; that is, first make a literal translation, and then make an idiomatic translation. Be sure you compare the two carefully together, and mark how they agree and how they differ. In making the idiomatic translation, observe this rule: keep to the Latin construction as nearly as the English idiom will allow; depart not from the Latin construction unnecessarily; a good translation has two qualities, it is idiomatic, it is close to the original. I now take up the remainder of the construction of hortor.

Hortor with the de and the ablative :

"Mandat ut Libonem de conciliandâ pace hortetur."-Cæsar. Literal Translation:-" He gives orders that he may encourage Libo concerning conciliating peace."

Idiomatic Translation :-" He directs him to put Manlius on obtaining peace."

Hortor with ad or in, accusative of the thing :

"Multæ res ad hoc consilium Gallos hortabantur."-Cicero.

Lit. Trans. "Many things to this counsel Gauls encouraged."

Id. Trans. :-"Many things encouraged the Gauls to take this course." "Et paribus Messapum in prælia dictis hortatur."-Virgil.

Lit. Trans. :-" And with equal Messapus to battle words he encourages."

Id. Trans. :-"He exhorts (them) not to lose an opportunity of gaining perpetual liberty."

Hortor with an accusative of the person and of the thing, two accusatives; or simply with an accusative of the thing:"Sin tu (quod te jamdudum hortor) exieris."- Cicero.

Lit. Trans. :-" But if thou (what thee now a long while I advise) shalt go out."

Id. Trans. :-"But if, as I have now long advised thee, thou shalt

In

This sentence affords an example of the way in which a literal translation may be converted into an idiomatic (correct English) translation, by merely altering the position of the words. place, paribus and dictis are wide apart. In matters of this kind, the Latin language gave its writers great latitude. Of this latitude the poets made a free use, as is seen in the line before us. While paribus and dictis are wide apart in place, they in sense go together; and in making an idiomatic translation, you must put them together. In order to exhibit this to you, I will indicate, by figures, the order in which the words must be taken.

"Me miseram! Cupio non persuadere quod hortor."-Ovid. Lit. Trans. :-" Me wretched! I desire not to persuade what I

advise."

Id. Trans. :-"Wretch that I am! I desire not to succeed in the advice I give."

Hortor takes also an infinitive mood:-
"Dedit oscula nato, hortaturque sequi."-Ovid.

Lit. Trans. :-" He gave kisses to (his) son, and exhorts (him) to follow."

as, encourage,

Id. Trans." He kissed his son, and exhorts him to follow." If you look back on these translations, you will find that I have rendered hortor by different words: advise, exhort. These words, however, resemble each other in signification. They all agree in the root-meaning of the verb hortor; which root-meaning is, I stir up some one to some deed, I impel, urge. Thus agreeing, the one or the other may be employed according as the English idiom, a regard to propriety, a regard to sound, or as your own taste may suggest; but observe that whatever word you prefer, it must, at least, in

EXERCISE 108,-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Sabinus suos hortatus signum dat. 2. Benefacta tua me hortantur tuo ut imperio paream. 3. Ad laudem milites hortabatur Cesar. 4. Hortabantur eos in amicitiam jungendam. 5. Iisdem de rebus etiam atque etiam hortor, quibus superioribus litteris hortatus

sum.

6. Pompeium hortari ut magnam infamiam fugiat non de

sistemus. 7. Hortatur eos ne animo deficiant. 8. Ego tunc pudendam trepidus hortabar fugam. 9. Equidem pacem hortari non desino. EXERCISE 109.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. The master does not cease to recommend diligence. 2. The master recommended diligence to his scholars. 3. The master having recommended his scholars not to be idle, gave kisses to all. 4. Thy wisdom exhorts me to obey thy government (command). 5. He will advise them to join friendship (to become friends). 6. Thy father enconrages thee concerning the same things (on) which I will encourage my brother. 7. I exhort thee not to fail in courage. 8. They have exhorted thy sister not to fail in courage. 9. Never will I advise shameful flight. 10. He never ceases to recommend war.

DEPONENT VERBS.-SECOND CONJUGATION.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-XXIX.
EXERCISE 104.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. My friends cannot be received in one house. 2. Tell us, by what consolation the troubled mind of the friend has been soothed? 3. The narrow limits of your breast cannot contain so great a character. 4. Nor will the world contain thee. 5. I must take food (food must be taken by me). 6. You must teach. 7. Teaching boys, you will be much loved. 9. The war Say why the boy has been punished? came to an end. 10. See that the state receives no injury (not any thing of injury). 11. Tell me, what has been written to you by your sister ? 12. No vice is more vile than avarice, especially in rulers who manage (managing) the state. 13. Thinking of heavenly things, we

8.

reproach (reproaching) kind actions is hateful. 15. A draught of cold water is hurtful to one sweating from the effect of labour. 16. A good man assists a good man without his entreating it. 17. Storks, about to migrate into foreign lands, are assembled in one spot. 18. A great multitude of men are collected in the city, for the purpose of seeing the public games. 19. All griefs (which are) borne patiently are less bitter. 20. The general dismisses the soldiers, after praising them (having been praised) on account of their distinguished valour. 21. Many youths, having been badly educated in their early boyhood by their parents, rush to destruction. 22. In the reign of Xerxes (Xerxes reigning) the Greeks obtained a most splendid victory over the Persians. 23. There is friendship between good men and God, nature uniting them. 24. When winter approaches (winter approaching) many birds seek milder regions. 25. Peace being recovered, the arts flourish. 26. When kings were banished (kings being banished), the Romans laid the foundation of a free state. 27. Though the country is changed (the country being changed), the characters of men are not changed. 28. Since the laws of God have been religiously observed (the laws of God having been religiously observed), our life will be happy.

EXERCISE 105.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

9.

1. Veri amici angustâ domo capi possunt. 2. Non capiunt angustia hujus domûs tantam personam. 3. Dic mihi quid pater tibi dixerit. 4. Fer matri aquam. 5. Avaritia in parentibus domos gerentibus magnum vitium est. 6. Avaritiâ deletâ, vitium deletum est. 7. Cogitans patriam, miles periit. 8. Timenti amicus magnæ consolationi est. Republicâ turbatâ, quis beatus esse potest? 10. Ingens hominum multitudo venerunt, potitura vinum. 11. Milites laudati, dimissi sunt. 13. Libro 12. Regnante Victoria, Educator Popularis institutus est. mutato, non sententias mutas.

EXERCISE 106.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. Who does not admire the splendour and beauty of virtue? 2. The general encouraged the soldiers to attempt to throw into confusion the enemies' line. 3. Already the enemies attempted to attack the city, when suddenly they were driven back by the citizens. 4. When you have despised pleasure, then, at length, you will be happy. 5. Survey the noble examples of virtue which have been recorded in history. 6. I come to accompany you into the garden. 7. Dreams are difficult to be explained. 8. Socrates accounted himself an inhabitant and a citizen of the whole world. 9. Learn willingly (being willing). 10. What is sweeter than to learn many things. 11. Riches accompany a learner, honours accompany (a learner). 12. The wicked man will at length remember his vices with grief.

EXERCISE 107.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. Mulierum pulchritudinem admiratus sum. 2. Hominem hortati sunt. 3. Rex milites hortabitur ut hostes propulsent. 4. Improbum pater filium arbitrabatur. 5. Quis signa interpretabitur? 6 Tum demum Dei signa interpretaberis, quum sapiens et bonus eris. 7. Virtutis exempla facilia sunt interpretatu. 8. Ille me in horto comitabatur, quum tu venisti. 9. Eo patrem comitatum. 10. Pater me in provin ciam comitatum venit. 11. Honores bonos et sapientes comitabuntur. 12. Pueri, discite libentes, et admiratione afficiemini.

THE UNIVERSITIES.-I.

OXFORD.-I.

THE advantages offered by the University of Oxford are available to two classes of persons—namely, those who do, and those

who do not become members of it.

Such a work as the POPULAR EDUCATOR would be singularly incomplete, if those who might desire to avail themselves of the greater or less advantages offered by what may be termed its regular course and "non-gremial" certificates respectively, could not find some practical account of the routine of both systems in its pages. Such an account, written from a popular point of view, would naturally embrace the following heads :I. Advantages offered to Unmatriculated Persons. The Local, Middle-Class, or Non-Gremial Examinations. II. Advantages and Conditions of the University Curriculum. i. The course open to students, described in the University statutes as non ascripti, more commonly known as unattached students.

ii. Private halls.

iii. Collegiate education.

I. THE MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATIONS.

Advantages offered to Unmatriculated Persons. These Examinations, which were instituted by a statute passed, after much discussion and careful revision, in 1858, during the Vice-chancellorship of the late Rev. David Williams, D.C.L., Warden of New College, have for their object the award of certificates of merit to such candidates as satisfy their requirements, which may serve as some introduction and recommendation for their holders on entering into trade, mercantile pursuits, or other avocations in life than the learned professions. There are two classes in these examinations, not however open at the option of candidates, but divided between the senior and junior candidates of from fifteen to eighteen years, and twelve to fifteen years respectively. To the senior candidates the title of A.A., or Associate in Arts, is awarded, together with the certificate; to the juniors the certificate only. The following are the principal conditions, adapted especially (though the main features and the leading principles of the examinations do not change) to the year 1869 :

The examinations will commence at the several local centres, at 2 P.M., on Monday, May 24th, 1869.

REGULATIONS FOR JUNIOR CANDIDATES.

(For Certificates.)

parents or guardians object on conscientious grounds (conscientiæ causa): and every one so examined must show some knowledge of each portion, or he cannot obtain a certificate, whatever may be the value of his work in other subjects.

Candidates on whose behalf the section is declined may pass in Holy Scripture only, by showing a satisfactory knowledge of the first portion of the section, and may count it as one of their two required subjects.

(iii.) Optional Subjects.

1. Latin.-Passages will be given from Sallust (Bell. Catil.) and from Virgil (En. ii.) for translation into English, with grammatical and general questions. Candidates may take either of the two authors, or both.

An easy passage from some other Latin author for translation into English. A passage of English (with Latin words supplied) for translation into Latin.

2. Greek.-Passages will be given from Xenophon (Memora bilia, Book i.) and from Homer (Odyssey ii.) for translation into English, with grammatical and general questions. Candidates may take either of the two authors, or both.

An easy passage from some other Greek author for translation into English.

3. French.-A passage will be given from "Lazare Hoche," by Emile de Bonnechose (in Hachette's " Series à 1 Franc le Volume") for translation into English, with grammatical and general questions. A passage from a French newspaper for translation into English. English sentences for translation into French.

4. German.-A passage will be given from Schiller's Ballads (Das Lied von der Glocke, Der Kampf mit Sem Drachen, Cassandra) for translation into English, with grammatical and general questions. A passage from a German newspaper for translation into English. English sentences for translation into German.

5. Mathematics.-No candidate will pass in this subject who does not show a fair knowledge of Euclid, Books i. and ii. (or of the portion of Geometry treated therein), of Arithmetic, and of Algebra to Simple Equations inclusive.

Questions will also be set in Euclid, Books iii., iv., vi. (or in the portion of Geometry treated therein), in Quadratic Equations, Progressions, and Proportion, Plane Trigonometry not beyond the Solution of Triangles, the use of Logarithms, and Mensuration.

The answers should be illustrated by diagrams, where these can be introduced.

6. Mechanics and Mechanism.-The questions will be of an

candidate in this class.

(i.) Preliminary Subjects.

Every candidate will be required to satisfy the examiners in Reading aloud from some English author; Writing from dictation; the Analysis and Parsing of some passage from Spenser's "Faëry Queene," Book I., Canto i., with some questions on this portion of the poem; English Composition (for example, a short description of a place, or account of some object in nature or art); Arithmetic as far as the Single Rule of Three inclusive; Geography, including the completion of an outline map of some country in Europe, by inserting its rivers, towns, mountains, etc.; and the outlines of English History, including the succession of sovereigns, the chief events, and some knowledge of the leading men of the several reigns.

N.B. The quality of handwriting, as well as the spelling, will be considered in the award of certificates.

In addition to the above necessary subjects, without proficiency in all of which no certificate will be awarded, candidates will be required to satisfy the examiners in (ii.) the Rudiments of Faith and Religion; and (iii.) not less than two, or more than five, of the seven optional subjects.

(ii.) The Rudiments of Faith and Religion.

Questions will be set in

1. The Second Book of Kings, and St. John's Gospel;

2. The Church Catechism, the Morning and Evening Services, and the Litany.

No candidate will pass in the " "Rudiments of Faith and Religion" who does not satisfy the examiners in each of the two portions of the section.

Every candidate will be examined in both portions, unless his

and Resolution of Forces, the determination of the Centre of Gravity in simple cases, and the Mechanical Powers; in Dynamics, to Impact and Collision, the Motion of Falling Bodies, and Attwood's Machine; in Hydrostatics, to the Pressure of Fluids, and the ordinary Hydrostatical and Pneumatical Instruments.

The answers should be illustrated by diagrams, where these can be introduced.

7. Chemistry.-Questions will be set on the elementary facts of Chemistry. Substances will be given to be tested, each containing not more than one acid and one base.

(iv.) Candidates may also offer themselves for examination ir1. a. Drawing from the Flat.

b. Drawing with light and shade from a cast or model. 2. The Grammar of Music.

The names of the successful candidates will be published, arranged in three divisions; those in the first division will be placed in order of merit; those in the second and third divisions alphabetically. After each candidate's name will be inserted his age, the place of his residence, and the school (if any) from which he comes to attend the examination.

A certificate will also be issued to every successful candidate, specifying the subjects in which he satisfied the examiners, and the division in which his name is placed.

REGULATIONS FOR SENIOR CANDIDATES.
(For the title of A.A.)

No person born before April 30th, 1851, can be received as a