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ever distinction or proficiency is implied by the letters "A.A." they neither represent a degree, nor convey the idea that those entitled to use them either are, or ever have been, members of the university. What they do imply is, the satisfaction of the requirements of a somewhat stringent examination conducted by university examiners, in subjects fixed from time to time by a delegacy composed of senior members of the university. This statement is made, not with the least wish to depreciate either the non-gremial examinations, or the title which they confer, but solely to prevent misunderstanding. The practical value of the title A.A. will be found (for example) by young men who are seeking masterships in the best class of "middle schools" which habitually send candidates to the non-gremial examinations.

(i.) Preliminary Subjects.

Every candidate will be required to satisfy the examiners in English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences; a short English Composition; Arithmetic; Geography, including the completion of an outline Map of some portion of Europe (as in the Junior Class); and the outlines of English History (also as in the Junior Class and as specified in its regulations). Handwriting and spelling will be considered.

Every candidate will be required to satisfy the examiners either in the Rudiments of Faith and Religion and in one of the Sections B, C, D, or in two of the Sections A, B, C, D.

(ii.) The Rudiments of Faith and Religion.

Candidates will be examined in

1. The Books of Deuteronomy and Joshua, St. John, and the Acts of the Apostles.

2. The Church Catechism, the Morning and Evening Services, and the Litany; and the outlines of the History of the Book of Common Prayer.

[Some of the questions will relate to the Greek text of the selected portions of the New Testament.]

No candidate will pass in the Rudiments of Faith and Religion who does not satisfy the examiners in each of the two portions of

the section.

Every candidate will be examined in both portions, unless his parents or guardians object on conscientious grounds (con scientia causâ): and every one so examined must show at least some knowledge of each portion, even if he fail to show so much as will satisfy the examiners; otherwise he cannot obtain a certiicate, whatever may be the value of his work in other subjects. Candidates, on whose behalf the section is declined, may pass in Holy Scripture only, by showing a satisfactory knowledge of the first portion of the section, and may count it as one of their two required subjects.

(iii.) Optional Subjects.

Section A.-English.

This will include questions in

1. English History from the accession of Henry VIII. to the Restoration, and the outlines of the History of English Literature during the same period.

2. Shakespeare's "King Lear," and the first five chapters of Southey's "Life of Nelson."

3. The outlines of Political Economy and English Law. The examination will not extend beyond the subjects treated of in the first book of Smith's "Wealth of Nations," and in the "Rights of Persons" in Blackstone's Commentaries.

4. Physical, Political, and Commercial Geography. No candidate will pass in this section who does not show a fair knowledge of one of these four classes of subjects.

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1. Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Heat. 2. Chemistry.-Questions will be set on the facts and general principles of Chemical Science. There will be a practical examination in the elements of Analysis. 3. Vegetable and Animal Physiology. 4. Geology and Mineralogy.

A practical acquaintance with the subject-matter is required of one of these four classes of subjects to satisfy the examiners in this section. Diagrams to be used as before, when necessary. [Candidates may also offer themselves for examination in Drawing and in Music.]

Section E.-Drawing.

1. Drawing from a cast or model. 2. Drawing in perspective.

3. Drawing in colour from a natural object.

4. Design for an ornament or pattern, or for a picture. Section F.-Music.

The Grammar of Music, and the History and Principles of Musical Composition.

RESULTS, ETC.

Separate lists of those who distinguish themselves are published in two divisions; the first division having regard to order of merit, the second alphabetically arranged.

Another list is also published, containing the names of all successful candidates, in three divisions; the first in order of merit, the second and third alphabetically arranged. To each name are added the age, abode, and place of education.

A certificate, signed by the Vice-Chancellor, is given to each successful candidate, awarding to him the title of A.A., and specifying the division in which his name is placed.

The

Oxford is always a centre for examination, and other local centres are from time to time appointed by the delogates. Rev. J. Griffiths, M.A., of Wadham College (63, St. Giles' Street, Oxford), will receive communications relative to the provision of examinations for new districts; but such communications must be made before February 1st, 1869.

Printed forms of application for candidates for examination will be prepared by March 1st, 1869, and may be had of the various local secretaries, as under, who will also supply any further information which is not comprised in the foregoing regulations for examination.

LOCAL SECRETARIES.

Oxford.-Rev. J. Griffiths, M.A., 63, St. Giles' Street. London.-Rev. G. A. Jacob, D.D., 42, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, W.C.

Bath.-W. Long, Esq., and J. H. Cotterell, Esq., Guildhall. Birmingham.-C. T. Saunders, Esq., 41, Cherry Street. Brighton.-Barclay Phillips, Esq., 75, Lansdowne Place. Exeter. Mr. W. Roberts, Broadgate.

Faversham.-S. G. Johnson, Esq.

Finchley.-Rev. T. C. Whitehead, M.A., Christ's College.
Gloucester.-Rev. H. Fowler, College Gardens.

Leeds.-H. H. Sales, Esq., 5, Victoria Chambers.
Lincoln.-Rev. H. W. Hutton, Vicars' Court.
Liverpool.-N. Waterhouse, Esq., 5, Rake Lane.

Manchester.-H. J. Marcus, Esq., 44, Upper Brook Street.

Margate.-Rev. G. Collis, 5, Eaton Terrace.

Northampton.-Rev. C. Cookson, Dallington Vicarage.
Norwich.-Rev. Hinds Howell, Drayton Rectory.

Nottingham.-W. T. Robertson, Esq., M.D., and W. Enfield,

Esq.

Southampton. Rev. Alfred Sells, Polygon House.
Taunton. Mr. F. Clarke, Fore Street.
Truro.-Rev. G. L. Church, Chacewater.

West Buckland.-J. H. Thompson, Esq., West Buckland, Barnstaple.

Windermere.-G. Hale Puckle, Esq., The College.
Windsor.-W. H. Harris, Esq., 4, Osborne Villas.

The printed forms, duly filled up, must be returned to the several local secretaries on or before Saturday, the 10th of April, 1869. No candidate's name will be received at any place after the 10th of April.

FEES.

Every junior candidate is required to pay a fee of 20s., every

senior candidate 30s. These fees are to be paid on or before | Andrea, in Cyprus, and Cape Beyrout, or Beirût, in Syria. In Saturday, the 10th of April, 1869. No fee can be returned under any circumstances.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

The subjects of the examinations vary (in some particulars) from time to time; but the above regulations and conditions will be found a fair average guide to their general form and subject-matter.

It may also be added for the encouragement of young persons who may wish to offer themselves as candidates, that although it is by no means a matter of course that all who are examined obtain the certificate, there is yet nothing in the requirements of these examinations but what any youths of average capacity can readily satisfy with ordinary industry and attention to the usual routine of study in any respectable school which is in the habit of sending its pupils to one of the local centres for the purpose of undergoing the test.

In conclusion, a few words may be added as to the advantages of the Middle-Class Examinations. Used fairly, they may carry forward to a successful issue a work which, under their auspices, has already made a good commencement, in the substitution of a system of sound and useful teaching for one of so much mere 66 'cram," which, in days now happily gone by, used to be mistaken by parents for serviceable education. Such a system of examinations, conducted by examiners who are necessarily strangers to the candidates, and who cannot but be impartial, must complete the eradication, already begun, of a system so fatal to the minds of all who have been its victims. One good result will be to weed out of the ranks, both of schoolmasters and assistant-teachers, the ignorant and disqualified persons who formerly used to resort to tuition-an occupation for which they were totally unfitted-when they had failed in every other attempt to earn a livelihood. But in the days in which this was not uncommonly done, it was very commonly thought that any one could teach. Among the masters of the private schools of England, men might be found who had formerly belonged to almost every conceivable calling; and the history of many a private schoolmaster would, if revealed, show a strange amount of evidence of the absence of every antecedent which is usually considered even by those who never cared to inquire into the experience of it by those to whom they entrusted their children, -as the necessary part of the education of a teacher. In the case of masters of endowed schools, instances might be found of unfitness, similar in quality though usually less serious in extent. The endowment, even when small, very commonly secured applications from candidates of higher pretensions than those who opened or assisted in private schools. But even in foundation schools, apathy, or carelessness, or favouritism, or even ignorance of their duty, on the part of trustees, has been known to burden an otherwise well-provided school with an utterly useless, or worse than useless, master. However, trustees and

parents have long since become awake to their responsibilities, and the University Middle-Class Examinations have produced the desired effect, and have evoked an amount of activity formerly unknown among the masters of all schools, endowed or not, which have for their object the education of the once shamefully-used and scandalously-neglected boys of the great and influential-who can say how influential ?-middle class of society. May they be enabled to complete their good work, and to place their mark permanently on each generation which their institution shall have benefited!

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-XXX.

ASIA (continued).

THE Peninsulas of Asia are:-Arabia, which lies between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf; Asia Minor, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea; India, or Hindostan, between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal; the Eastern Peninsula, or Further India, and its branch, the Malay Peninsula, between that bay and the Chinese Sea; Corea, between the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan; and Kamtschatka, between the Sea of Okhotsk and Behring Sea. The Isthmus which unites Malacca, or the Malay Peninsula, to the Eastern or Indo-Chinese Peninsula, is called the Isthmus of Kraw.

The Capes of Asia are:-In Asia Minor, Cape Baba, near the ruins of Troy, and Cape Anamour, in south of Asia Minor; Cape

Arabia, Cape Amran, near Aden, Cape Fartak, and Cape Ras al-Had, the most eastern point of that peninsula; in Southern India, or the Western Peninsula, Cape Comorin, the most southern point of Hindostan; and Point Calimere, on the Coro mandel coast. In the Eastern Peninsula, Cape Negrais, on the coast of Ava; Point Romania, in the south of Malacca, or the Malay Peninsula; Cape Cambodia, and Cape Padaran, projecting into the Gulf of Siam and the Chinese Sea; on the eastern coast

of China, the promontory of Shantung; in Kamtschatka, Cape Lopatka; and at Behring Strait, the East Cape. The principal cape in the Arctic Ocean is Cape Severo Vostochnoi, or N.E. Cape. In Asia there are many vast Lakes which deserve and have received the name of seas. Of these, the principal is the Caspian Sea, between Russia and Turkestan, said to be more than 700 miles long; it covers a surface of about 140,000 square miles, and varies in depth from 12 feet on its northern shores, to 150 feet on its other shores; being about 2,800 feet deep in the middle. This inland sea is salt, but less so than the great ocean which surrounds the continent; it lies in a basin whose surface is lower than that of the sea in general, having been ascertained to be about 83 feet lower than that of the Black Sea. The Sea of Aral, in Turkestan, is about 300 miles long; it covers a surface of about 23,000 square miles, being shallow and slightly saltthis lake is 117 feet above the level of the Caspian Sea. The Lake Baikal, in Siberia, is about 350 miles long, and varies from 35 to 60 miles in breadth; it covers a surface of about 25,000 square miles, and is raised about 1,400 feet above the level of the sea; its waters are fresh, and abound in fish. Other lakes of smaller size, but still occupying a large surface, are: Balkash or Tengiz, in the south of Russia in Asia; Zurrah, in Afghanistan; Tengri-Nor, in Chinese Thibet; Baktegan, in Persia; the Dead Sea or Lake Asphaltites, in Palestine; and many others in this vast continent. The most elevated piece of water on the earth's surface is Lake Sir-i-kol, one of the principal sources of the Amoo-Daria or Oxus, in the Bolor-Tagh Mountains.

Asia contains the most extensive plateau or table-land to be found on the surface of the globe. It lies generally between the parallels of 30° and 50° north latitude, and between the meridians of 70° and 120° east longitude; its length is about 2,500 miles, and its breadth varies from 1,200 to 1,400 miles. Its mean elevation above the level of the sea is about 2,000 feet. and The plateau of Mongolia is about 3,000 feet in elevation; the loftiest parts of the plateau of Thibet reach the amazing altitude of 16,000 feet. Between these plateaus lies the Great Sandy Desert of Tartary, called Gobi (desert) or Shamo (sea of sand), having an average elevation of 2,500 feet above the level

of the sea.

The plateaus of Persia and Afghanistan are of less elevation than those of Thibet; the former being, on an average, 3,500 feet high, and the latter 6,000 feet high. The high tableland of Armenia, upon which the ark of Noah is said to have rested, is about 6,000 feet in elevation; and that of Asia Minor In India, to the south of the varies from 6,000 to 3,000 feet. great table-land region, are the plateaus of Malwa, the Deccan, and Mysore; the two former being each 2,000 feet, and the latter The table3,000 feet in elevation above the level of the sea. land of Arabia, which was formerly supposed to be one vast desert in the interior, has an average height of 3,500 feet.

The great plains and lowlands of Asia form a balance and counterpart to the mountains and table-lands of that continent. The plain of Siberia in the north extends from the foot of the Uralian mountains, between the shores of the Arctic Ocean and the bottom of the great Altaian range of mountains, to the most eastern extremity of the continent. The plain of Independent Tartary extends from Siberia, on the south-west, to the high table-land of Persia, including the Sea of Aral. The plain of China, which extends 500 miles inland from the East and Yellow Seas, is well watered and cultivated, and very populous; the plains of Further India partake of the same character; and the plain of Hindostan, which divides the plateaus of Southern India from the Himalaya Mountains, is the land of rice, sugar, indigo, and cotton. The great mid-river plain of India, the space between the Indus and the Ganges, includes the preceding fertile tract, the great Indian Desert, and the plain of Sinde or Scinde, which, embracing the lower course of the Indus, is very fertile. The plains of Mesopotamia (in the middle between the rivers), now called Al-jezirah, and Babylonia, now called Irak-Arabi, include the greater part of the countries watered by the rivers

Tigris and Euphrates. The so-called Mesopotamian or northern plain is rather barren; but the southern or Babylonian plain, extending to the Persian Gulf, is much more productive, and formerly supported a much larger population than at present. In Asia are to be found the loftiest mountains on the surface of the globe, as well as vast plateaus and immense deserts. The mountain systems of Asia diverge and extend in all directions from a great mountain mass or knot, which stands in the centre of the continent, and rises above the lofty tableland of Pamir to a height of 19,000 feet above the level of the sea. This range, which forms part of the natural boundary line between Turkestan or Independent Tartary, and Chinese Turkestan, is called the Bolor-Tagh Mountains.

From the northern extremity of this short but lofty range, the Thian-Shan Mountains run in a north-east direction between Independent Tartary and Chinese Tartary, sending out a long branch to the east towards Mongolia. The culminating peak of these mountains is Tangri-Khan, 21,000 feet in height. The range also contains two lofty volcanoes, Pe-shan and Ho-tcheou. At the northern extremity of the main branch of the ThianShan Mountains stands the Lake Sir-i-kol, encircled along its northern shore by the Ala-Tau range. This range is prolonged in a north-easterly direction to the eastern extremity of Asia, under the names of the Altai, Sayansk, Yablonoi, Stanovoi, and Aldan Mountains. The culminating point of this long chain of mountains, whose different portions are distinguished by the names that have just been enumerated, is Mount Katunsk, a peak of the Altai Mountains, which is 12,790 feet above the sea-level. A branch of the Aldan Mountains extends southwards through the peninsula of Kamtschatka, in which are several lofty volcanoes. The highest of these is Kliutchevskaja, 15,765 feet in height. The remaining mountains of importance in Russia in Asia are the Orulgan Mountains, on the east of the river Lena and the Baikal Mountains, to the west of Lake Baikal.

Returning to the central mountain mass of Asia, the BolorTagh Mountains, we find the Kuen-Lun Mountains branching out in an easterly direction from its southern extremity, and separating Chinese Tartary from Thibet. This is succeeded by the Pe-ling range, between the rivers Hoang-ho and Yang-tsekiang, in China, which sends out many spurs and branches to the north and south, namely, the In-shan and Khin-gan Mountains, in Mongolia, and the Yun-ling range, between China and Thibet, and Nan-ling range, in the south of China.

Again, going back to the Bolor-Tagh Mountains, we find the Himalaya Mountains trending in a south-east direction from its southern extremity, and separating Hindostan from Thibet. In this range are the loftiest peaks on the world's surface, the principal being Dhawalagiri, in Nepaul, 28,080 feet high; Kunchinjunga, in the little state of Sikhim, between Nepaul and Bhotan, 28,150 feet high; and Gaurisankar or Mount Everest, between Thibet and Nepaul, 29,002 feet high. The Karakorum Mountains, in Thibet, form a sort of offset of the Himalaya range to the east, having Dapsang, 28,280 feet high, as the culminating point. In Burmah are the mountains of Aracan, while Further India is traversed by ranges running parallel to the courses of its great rivers, and extending along the whole length of the Malay Peninsula. These last-named ranges are of no great height, Tidi-bang-sa, in the Malay Peninsula, 6,560 feet in height, being their culminating point. The Vindhya Mountains traverse the centre of the peninsula of Hindostan in a direction almost east and west, while the sides of the peninsula slope to the sea in ranges parallel to the coast, and called, from their position, the Eastern and Western Ghauts.

Once more reverting to the Bolor-Tagh Mountains, we see the Hindoo-Koosh Mountains, branching from the southern extremity of this central mass in a south-west direction, dividing Independent Tartary from Cashmere, in the north of Hindostan, and Afghanistan, and extending far into the interior of this last-named country; the Suliman Mountains, a branch of the Hindoo-Koosh Mountains, extending first to the east and then to the south, separating Afghanistan and Beloochistan from Hindostan, or the peninsula of India.

Extending through the north of Persia, from the HindooKoosh Mountains towards the west, are the Paropamisan Mountains and Elburz range, the former having its culminating point in Koh-i-baba, 16,000 feet high, and the latter in Mount Demavend, about 21,500 feet above the sea-level. Through the western and southern districts of Persia stretch the Zagros

Mountains, or mountains of Kurdistan, in a direction parallel with the Euphrates and Tigris, and forming the north-east limit of the great plain through which those rivers run.

Lastly, considering the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus range to be common to Europe and Asia, as they form part of the line of demarcation between these continents, there are yet remaining to be named, as Asiatic mountain ranges, the mountains of Armenia, culminating in Mount Ararat, 17,112 feet in height, and lying south of the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian Seas; Taurus and Anti-Taurus, in Asia Minor, culminating in Argish Dagh, 13,197 feet high; and the Lebanon Mountains, running along the coast of Syria and Palestine as far as the peninsula of Sinai, and culminating in Mount Hermon, which is in the north of Palestine, and 9,375 feet above the sea-level.

Of the mountains in the islands of Asia, the most worthy of. notice are Fusi-yama or the mountain Fusi, an active volcano, in the island of Niphon, Japan, to the west of the capital, Yeddo or Jeddo; and the mountains in the south of Ceylon, which culminate in the peak of Pedrotallagalla, about 8,280 feet above the level of the sea.

The rivers of Asia exceed in magnitude and extent any of the rivers of Europe, and are themselves only surpassed by those of America. These large rivers have their sources in the mountains which border the immense plateaus already described, and they flow through the plains northward, eastward, and southward, into the surrounding oceans. In the Altai Mountains rise the large rivers, Obi, Yenisei, and Lena, which, after traversing the plains of Siberia for the respective direct lengths of about 1,800, 1,950, and 1,300 miles, fall into the Arctic Ocean. The Obi is said to drain a surface of 925,000 square miles. In the mountains of China, and the Chinese empire, rise the Amour, or Sagalien, which, after a course of about 1,250 miles, falls into the Sea of Okhotsk; the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, which, after a course of about 1,150 miles, falls into the Yellow Sea; the Yang-tze-kiang, or Kiang-ku, which, after a course of about 1,800 miles, falls into the same sea; and the Choo-Kiang, or river of Canton, which, after a course of about 580 miles, falls into the Chinese Sea. In the eastern peninsula run the rivers called the Song-ha, the Ma-kiang or Camboja, the Meinam, the Salween or Saluen, and the Irrawaddy; these fall respectively into the Gulf of Tonquin, the Chinese Sea, the Gulf of Siam, and (the two last-named) the Gulf of Martaban. Hindostan is watered in the north-east by the Ganges, which rises in the southern slope of the Himalaya Mountains, and after a course of about 1,000 miles, falls into the Bay of Bengal; this river is navigable to about half its distance from its mouth, that is, up to the point where it receives the waters of the Jumna. At Calcutta, where it falls into the sea, it forms a vast delta, called the Sunderbunds, and the navigable branch for large vessels is here called the Hooghly. Near the mouth, this river receives the waters of the River Sanpoo, or Brahmapootra, which rises in an opposite direction. Hindostan, again, is watered in the north-west by the Indus, a river which gives its name to all India, and which, rising also in the Himalaya Mountains, but on the northern side, at an elevation of about 15,000 feet, passes round its western extremity, and then runs a south-westerly course of about 1,950 miles, falling into the Arabian Sea by a delta near Tattah. About 350 miles from its mouth, this river receives the waters of five rivers, the Jelum, the Chenab, the Ravee, the Beas, and the Sutlej; hence the name of the country is the Punjab (that is, the five rivers). This river is navigable for large steamers at the distance just mentioned, and for smaller vessels about 350 miles higher. The Tigris and Euphrates, which rise in Armenia, and flow through the plains of Mesopotamia (the one after a course of nearly 800 miles, and the other after a course of about 900 miles), unite in the river called Shat-el-Arab, and fall into the Persian Gulf at Basra or Basora. In Asia Minor flows the Kizil-Irmak (the ancient Halys), through a course of about 400 miles, and falls into the Black Sea. The Caspian Sea receives the waters of the River Kur, after a course of about 500 miles. The sea of Aral receives the waters of the Amoo-Daria or Jihon (the ancient Orus), after a course of about 880 miles; and of the Syr-Daria (the ancient Jaxartes), after a course of more than 720 miles. Such are the most striking physical peculiarities of the great continent of Asia.

We append to this lesson a map of India, showing the peninsulas of Hindostan and Further India or India beyond the

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Ganges, which includes Burmah, Siam, Malacca, Cochin China, Aldan Mountains, in Eastern Zagros Mountains, or Mountains etc. The position of the three chief peaks of the Himalayas are indicated in this map.

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Russia in Asia and Kam-
tschatka.

of Kurdistan, in S.W. of Persia.

Orulgan Mountains, E. of the Mountains of Armenia, in N.E. of
Lena.

Baikal Mountains, W. of Lake

Baikal.
Kuen-Lun Mountains, between
Chinese Tartary and Thibet.
Pe-ling Range, in China (Central).
In-shan Mountains, Mongolia.
Khin-gan Mountains, Mongolia.
Yun-ling Range, between China
and Thibet.
Nan-ling Range, in S. of China.
Himalaya Mountains, N.E. frontier
of Hindostan.
Karakorum Mountains, Thibet.
Mountains of Aracan, Burmah.
Vindhya Mountains, Central Hin-
dostan.

Eastern and Western Ghauts, Pe-
ninsula of Hindostan (coast).
Hindoo-Koosh Mountains, between
Cashmere (Hindostan) and
Afghanistan.

Turkey in Asia.

Taurus and Anti-Taurus Ranges,
in Asia Minor.
Lebanon Mountains, in Syria and

Palestine.

RIVERS.

Obi, Arctic Ocean.
Yenisei, Arctic Ocean.
Lena, Arctic Ocean.
Amour, Sea of Okhotsk.
Hoang-ho, Yellow Sea.
Yang-tze-kiang, Yellow Sea.
Choo-Kiang, China Sea.
Ma-kiang, China Sea.
Meinam, Gulf of Siam.
Salween, Gulf of Martaban.
Irrawaddy, Gulf of Martaban.
Ganges, Bay of Bengal.
Indus, Indian Ocean.
Euphrates, Shat-el-Arab, Persian
Tigris,
Gulf.

Suliman Mountains, W. frontier of Orontes, Mediterranean Sea.

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LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-XXI. CADMIUM, COBALT, NICKEL, MANGANESE, AND IRON.

CADMIUM.

SYMBOL, Cd-COMBINING WEIGHT, 112-SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 87.

Ar the commencement of the distillation of zinc, a brown smoke is often seen to issue from the crucible; this is the oxide of cadmium. The metal is rare. It resembles tin in appearance, and is so soft as to leave a mark upon paper. It melts at 315° Cent., and is volatile. Though generally found associated with zinc, it is easily separated from that metal by sulphuretted hydrogen, which precipitates from an acid solution the beautiful yellow sulphide of cadmium, which is used as a paint. The iodide of cadmium is used for iodising collodion for the use of the photographer.

COBALT.

SYMBOL, CO-COMBINING WEIGHT, 587-SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 8.5. This metal is found associated with arsenic, nickel, manganese, iron, and cop

It

per, in ores more or less complicated. It is very difficult of extraction. It is found to be of a light-red colour, requiring a high temperature for its fusion. possesses great tenacity, and exhibits magnetic properties. It is readily oxidised by nitric acid, and even by exposure to the air. It owes its commercial value to the brilliant colours which the salts of cobalt possess. It forms two oxides, namely, the protoxide (COO), and the sesquioxide (Co,O,). The former is soluble in acid. The concentrated solution is of a beautiful blue, but when diluted, pink. This oxide will also combine with bases. With the hydrate of potash it forms a blue compound; with magnesium nitrate, a pink. Thénard's blue is its combina

and neutralise the yellow which tinges linen. The salts of cobalt are of little other interest. When crystallised they are red; when anhydrous, blue. Their solutions, when concentrated, are blue, and on being diluted, pass through red to pink. When a cold red solution is heated, it becomes blue again.

it imparts to a bead of borax in the blow-pipe flame. A soluThe presence of cobalt is easily detected by the intense blue tion of its salts with potash becomes blue, and by an excess of the alkali, pink. Ammonia has the same effect, but the precipitate is readily dissolved in an excess of the liquid.

NICKEL.

SYMBOL, Ni COMBINING WEIGHT, 587-SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 8.5. Nickel is a white, silver-like metal; hard, yet ductile. Its

magnetic properties are more marked than those of cobalt,

to which metal it presents a very remarkable analogy. Nickel is extracted either from the speiss mentioned above, or from the ore kupfernickel, in which it is combined with arsenic. It is chiefly of value on account of its property of whitening brass,

FIG. 50.-SECTION OF A BLAST FURNACE.

tion with alumina; and with the oxide of tin is formed Rinman's green. However, cobalt chiefly finds its way into commerce as smalt, which is blue glass coloured by this oxide. It is chiefly manufactured in Saxony. The ore which, besides cobalt, contains several metals in combination with sulphur and arsenic, is roasted sufficiently to cause the cobalt to become oxide. This is effected at a temperature too low to disturb the other combinations in the ore. Four parts of this roasted ore, with ten of quartz and four of potassium carbonate, are slowly melted in a furnace. The cobaltic oxide combines with the fused silicate of potash, and a blue glass is formed. The other constituents of the ore fall to the bottom of the crucible, and make that brittle, metallic mass, called speiss, from which nickel is extracted. The blue glass is poured out into cold water, by which it splits into fragments, which are afterwards ground between granite stones under water. The water is allowed to flow out, as the grinding proceeds, into depositing vessels, each being filled by the overflow of the one above it. It will be evident that the finest powder will be found in that vessel furthest from the mill. Smalt is used in the manufacture of paper-hangings, and to some extent by laundresses, to correct

VOL. III.

thus producingpackfong or German sil ver. Like cobalt, it forms two oxides: NiO, the protoxide, the salts of which are green, and when anhydrous, yellow; and Ni,O,, the sesquioxide, of which no salts are known. The hydrated protoxide is thrown down as an applegreen powder, when to any of the salts of nickel caustic potash is added. Ammonia has the same effect, but when added in excess dissolves the precipitate, rendering the solution blue. With sulphuretted hydrogen nickel behaves as cobalt. A bead of borax, touched with nickel, becomes a reddishyellow glass, which pales as it cools. In the reducing flame, greyish particles of the reduced metal are disseminated through the bead. Kupfernickel,

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the ore from which nickel is obtained, is found principally in Saxony, and, in small quantities, in Cornwall.

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MANGANESE.

SYMBOL, Mn COMBINING WEIGHT, 55-SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 8.0. The metal itself is reduced from its oxide by charcoal at a very high temperature. It is of a greyish colour, feebly magnetic, hard enough to scratch steel. It soon crumbles to a brown powder in the air, and has the power to decompose water at ordinary temperatures; hence it has no commercial value, save that it is useful as an alloy with iron. A small per-centage of manganese renders that metal both harder and more elastic.

Manganous Oxide (MnO).-By heating the carbonate, the carbonic acid gas is driven off, and this oxide remains as a green powder. It is a very powerful base, and rapidly combines with oxygen, forming a brown powder. It makes with mineral acids well-marked salts, which give pink solutions, from which an alkali will throw it down again, as a white hydrate, which becomes brown on exposure to the air.

The Sesquioxide (Mn,O,) has been noticed as capable of forming an alum. It appears in nature as braunite. Its salts are

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