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(8.) Multiply a2 + b2 + c2- ab be by a+b+c. Ans. a3 + b3 + c3 — 3abc. From the principles explained in Articles 66 to 89 we derive the following general rule for multiplication:

90. RULE.-Multiply the letters and co-efficients of each term in the multiplicand by the letters and co-efficients of each term in the multiplier; and prefix to each term of the product the sign required by the principle, that like signs produce +, and unlike signs; lastly, unite such terms as are similar. Otherwise.-Multiply every part of the multiplicand by every part of the multiplier, and collect the results as in addition.

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6b-4.

1+h.

1

11. Multiply a +36-2 into 4a 12. Multiply 4ab × × 2 into 3my 13. Multiply (7ahy) × 4 into 4x × 3 × 5 × d. 14. Multiply (Gab hd + 1) x 2 into (8 + 4x 1) x d. 15. Multiply 3ay + y 4+ h into (d + x) × (h + y). 16. Multiply 6ax (4h d) into (b + 1) × (h + 1). 17. Required the continual product of a+b+c, +e, and a + b - c.

- a+b+c, a — b

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y, 2x+y, and 4x2 + y2.

18. Find the product of a2 - y2 + z3 19. Find the continual product of 2x 20. Multiply a + b into a + b into a + b. 21. Multiply x + y into a ม into x + y. 22. Multiply 4 (x + y) into 3a into 6b into 3. 23. Multiply 3 (a + b + c + d) into xyz.

4bb.

24. Multiply xx + xy + yy into x - y. 25. Multiply aaa bbb into aaa + bbb. 26. Multiply aaax + rx into a + x. 27. Multiply yyy - ayyaayaaa into y + a. 28. Multiply 15a + 20bb into 3a 29. Multiply 3a (x + y) × 4 into a + b. 30. Multiply aa + 2ab+bb into a + b into a + b. 31. Find the product of x- 2x2 + 3x3 × 4x1 + 5x5 32. Find the product of 5y 33. Find the product of as 34. Find the product of v1 - as.

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When the course has been selected, and enclosed by a rope on either side, a straight line is drawn across one end of it by chalk or otherwise, and this forms the starting point. All the competitors should be abreast on this line at the moment when the signal is given, unless the race is a handicap (a term we shall presently explain). In walking races the signal is usually given by word of mouth, after a preparatory notice, One, two, three-off!" If any of the competitors start before the final word "off!" is pronounced, it is the duty of the starter to call them all back, and to continue to do so until a fair start is effected.

thus: 66

In running races the signal should be given by pistol, fired behind the men, and without preparatory notice, as soon as they are observed to be equally on the line. This prevents the possible advantage of half a second that might be gained by one or other of the competitors in anticipating the final signal; and in a "sprint" race (see previous paper) half a second is not to be despised. But if once the final word passes the lips of the starter, or the pistol report is heard, the men are actually started and cannot be recalled, although one or two may have

This cannot always be gained an advantage in getting off. helped, as some men are quicker than others in getting in motion; and, as we said in our last article, starting is a thing which an intending competitor will do well to practise before the race.

The goal at which the men come in is usually a piece of tape stretched across the course at its extremity, if the competitors are only two or three, by being held in the hands of two of the managing committee, one of whom is usually the judge; but if the racers are many, and the course is therefore wide, it is better to have the tape attached to a stake on one side, and held by the judge on the other. The first man who breasts the tape is the winner; and if two are so closely together that they reach the tape simultaneously, the judge declares it a dead heat, and they have afterwards to run again to decide who shall be victor.

RUNNING OR WALKING IN HEATS.

When the competitors are so numerous that the course is not wide enough for them all without danger of their coming into collision, they are divided into parties of equal number, who race among themselves at different times. Each of these races is one heat towards the final event, in which the victors in the different heats are put to race together.

It is always better, when the sports take place on two suc cessive days, that the final heat in races of this description should be deferred until the second day, when the competitors will be fresh again. This ensures a better performance, as the men are less fatigued, and probably a more interesting contest to the spectators, while the men themselves are less likely to suffer injury from over-exertion.

HANDICAP RACES.

This term is employed to characterise races where the competitors do not all start on the same footing, some being allowed a short distance in advance of the others. The object of handicap races is to equalise, as far as possible, the chance of men of unequal power of performance, so that a race may be interesting, and its issue uncertain, although a man known to be a good runner may be matched against an indifferent one. Thus, if a race is got up in a school or college, and some of the intending competitors are so much older, stronger, or swifter than the rest as to be likely to carry all before them, the handicap is generally adopted, and those who obviously possess superior advantages are then made to give an allowance in the start to others who, it is equally plain, are their inferiors in athletic skill. By this means a highly interesting race is frequently got up, where otherwise such a race would be devoid of attraction, from the previous certainty that Master or Mr. So-and-So would carry off the prize.

But rightly to frame the handicap-that is, to allot to each of the competitors such a position at the start as shall give him an equal chance with the rest-requires no small degree both of knowledge and skill; and this task should be confided to some one who knows the men and their powers, and in whose judg ment and impartiality they all have confidence. If the race be a short one, he gives the less practised athletes a few yards only, placing them in various gradations according to his idea or knowledge of their ability. But if it be a long race, he may measure their allowance by minutes and seconds. The best man or men are stationed on the starting line, which is called scratch, while the others occupy their posts at the measured distances in advance; and from these various positions all start when the signal is given. A good and close race, in which perhaps inferior and superior performers come in almost together, is the test of the judgment which has been shown in the handicapping.

The handicapper, if he is not well acquainted with the previous performances of competitors, should inquire into them, and ascertain by how great a distance, or by what time, such a one is known to have beaten another over a certain course, and be guided thereby in his allotment. It is not our purpose to give rules to handicappers, but, as some slight guide where it may be of service, we may say that in, for example, a running race for the distance of half a mile, an allowance of from fifty to one hundred yards to the least promising candidates is not excessive, if there is much disproportion between them. The more able athletes can be placed within those limits, according to their relative skill.

CONSOLATION RACES.

This is a term frequently used in athletic meetings, but requiring explanation to the inexperienced. It is applied to a race fixed at the end of the sports only for competitors who have been unsuccessful in the previous contests; and the name is derived from the fact that it gives the defeated the "consolation" of one more chance of victory before the day is closed, while to him who may be the victor this consolation is of course still more complete. "Consolation" races are very useful features in athletic meetings, whether small or great, as they generally bring them to a close with an interesting competition, in which the best man is brought forward out of the second best rank.

One other term in common use remains to be explained, and this is the word laps, as relating to the course. Where the distance of a race in a public meeting is at all a long one, the course must necessarily be comprised within the limits of the ground available for the spectators; and therefore the competitors, instead of running a mile or half-mile race on a course straight from end to end, have a circular or oval enclosure marked out for them, and they run the round of this as many times as will be required to make up the full distance of the race. The completion of each circle is called a lap, and some person should be stationed at the end of the circle to call out how many laps each man has completed when he passes this point.

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HURDLE-RACING.

In hurdle races, the competitors in running have to jump over a certain number of hurdles placed at equal distances throughout the course. These races are usually short, being contrived as a test of skill in leaping rather than of speed in the race. The distances commonly set are 120 and 200 yards, ten hurdles being used in the former case and twelve in the latter.

Hurdle races should properly take place on short elastic turf, which causes less concussion to the feet of the competitors in reaching the ground. The hurdles used are of the ordinary character, and should be 3 feet in height. In 120-yard races they are placed 10 yards apart, a space of 15 yards being left at either end. In the race of 200 yards the distance between the hurdles is increased in proportion.

There are two ways of taking the hurdles, either of which is allowed. The first is by a leap from both feet; and the second by something like a flying step, which is known as "bucking." The latter way is preferable, as it is a continuance of the running motion, while leaping necessitates a momentary pause before each hurdle.

In

Before engaging in a hurdle race, the competitor should practise well over smaller objects, increasing their height as he gains in facility, until he can easily do the 3 feet 6 inches. the race itself, he should take the hurdles with confidence, as nervousness or misgiving at the moment when he reaches the impediment will probably cause him to kick the top in jumping, and come to the ground. The hurdles must be fixed somewhat loosely in the earth, so that in case of a failure the hurdle itself may topple over with the competitor, instead of offering a firm resistance, and thus increasing the violence of his fall.

Good amateur performers have accomplished the 120 yards with 10 flight of hurdles in 18 seconds, and the 200 yards, with 12 hurdles, in 30 seconds.

STEEPLECHASING.

This very much resembles hurdle-racing, as it consists chiefly in leaping over various obstacles, such as hedges, etc., during the run. Steeplechases, although ranking among athletic sports, are not usually witnessed in public competitions, as the nature of the ground whereon such events come off is not generally suited to this kind of race. In a steeplechase, what is wanted is a long stretch of ground well varied with hedge, ditch, and fence; and the more formidable these obstacles in their nature, the better is the ground adapted to the purpose. For any method of getting over an obstacle is allowed in a steeplechase, and a competitor may even pass round it, the disadvantage in that case being his own, as he loses time in the race. The ordinary plan in selecting a steeplechase course is to choose some landmark at the distance of half a mile or a mile, the intermediate space being such ground as we have described. Where suitable ground cannot be obtained on common land, it is of course necessary to get the permission of the landowners for the scamper across their fields; and, when courteously ap

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plied for in a district where no other course is available, such permission is rarely withheld. The competitors are started towards the landmark, the first man who reaches it being the winner. He who goes straightest over all intervening impediments, as well as swiftest, stands the best chance; and the race gives scope for boldness and resource, as well as athletic skill. Occasionally it is arranged that the last few hundred yards of a steeplechase shall be run in sight of the spectators at an ordinary athletic meeting.

Very good practice for steeplechasing is a game called
HARE AND HOUNDS,

which we will therefore describe in this place.

Hare and hounds is a race got up in imitation of the hunt from which it takes its name. One of the party, usually the swiftest, is the "hare;" a second is "huntsman;" and a third is "whipper-in." The rest, as many as like to join, are the hounds; and at the start the huntsman leads them, while the whipper-in brings up the rear.

The hare starts off some few minutes in advance of the others, the time being regulated by the distance that it is understood shall be traversed. He is provided with a bag filled with pieces of paper, or he may have his pockets full of such pieces, and these are termed the "scent." As he runs he chooses his own track, over stile, ditch, etc., and drops the paper sparingly on the road. The hounds have to follow his path by the aid of this "scent," and to overtake him if they can; but they are only allowed to take the path he has chosen, and if they come in sight of him, say a field or two off, they must not attempt to reach him by a short cut, but still follow the scent only. If they lose the scent-that is, can no longer find the paper left on the ground-the huntsman gives the signal, "Lost;" the whipper-in then sticks into the ground a flag with which he is provided, at the spot where the scent was last discovered; and the pack then run round this place in a circle, until the scent is thus regained. When they again find it, the cry is "Tally-ho!" and off they start once more in pursuit.

The hare must not cross his own track, as this would lead to confusion and spoil the sport. If he is a good leaper, he will take the hounds over a roughish course, and give them enough to do to catch him. When he is caught the sport is over, and the victory is with the hounds; if he makes home uncaught, it counts to himself.

Sometimes the hounds do not hunt the hare in a pack, but each does his best to catch the hare on his own account, or to reach the end of the track first after him. This is properly a race among the hounds, which the first man wins, while the others are placed in their order of coming in.

READINGS IN FRENCH.-V.
MDLLE. DE LAJOLAIS.
SECTION III.

LE saisissement de la joie fut plus dangereux pour Malle. de Lajolais que la douleur.i La pauvre enfant tomba lourdement et sans connaissance (a) sur le marbre de la galerie.2

Grâce aux soins de l'impératrice, de la Princesse Hortense et de leurs dames, Mdlle. de Lajolais reprit bientôt connaissance (b). "Mon père, mon père!" murmura-t-elle aussitôt qu'elle put (c) parler. "Oh! que je sois (d) la première à lui annoncer sa grâce."

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Et se levant, elle voulut s'échapper des bras qui la retenaient; mais trop faible pour tant d'émotions diverses, elle y retomba sans force.

"Rien ne presse maintenant, Mademoiselle," dit une des dames; "prenez (e) un peu de repos et de nourriture; vous irez (f) une heure plus tard.”5

6

"Une heure plus tard!" se recria Maria; "vous voulez que je retarde d'une heure l'annonce de la vie à un homme condamné à mort, surtout quand cet homme est mon père. Oh! Madame," ajouta-t-elle, se tournant vers l'impératrice, "laissezmoi partir de grâce (9); songez que c'est mon père: qu'il a sa grâce, et qu'il ne le sait (h) pas encore."

'Soit (i), mon enfant," lui répondit l'excellente Joséphine; "mais vous ne pouvez aller seule à sa prison,"s

"Je suis bien venue seule à votre château," répondit-elle vivement (j).

66

'Que (k) votre majesté nous permette d'accompagner Mdlle. de Lajolais,"10 demandèrent à la fois plusieurs officiers et aidesde-camp de l'Empereur, que l'action pourtant bien naturelle de Malle. de Lajolais avait remplis d'admiration.

"M. de Lavalette* me rendra ce service," dit l'impératrice, souriant (1) gracieusement à l'un d'eux; "ainsi que Monsieur (désignant un aide-de-camp de service). Vous vous servirez (m) d'une de mes voitures;15 allez, Messieurs, je vous confie Mdlle. de Lajolais."

Bien qu'épuisée de fatigue, de besoin et d'émotion, Maria refusa de prendre et nourriture et repos.16 Elle voulut ellemême voir atteler les chevaux, presser les gens,17 et ne se tint en place (n) que lorsqu'elle et ses conducteurs furent installés sur les coussins de la voiture. 1s

18

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Alors la voiture partit au galop de six bons chevaux: elle franchit avec une rapidité incroyable la distance qui séparait Saint-Cloud de la prison. Pendant tout le trajet, Maria, droite et raide,2 tenait (a) les yeux fixés sur le chemin qu'elle avait encore à parcourir (b); son regard semblait vouloir dévorer la distance; sa poitrine haletait, comme si c'était elle, au lieu des chevaux, qui traînât (c) le carosse, et elle était pâle, si pâle, que deux ou trois fois ses compagnons lui adressèrent la parole, mais inutilement, elle ne les entendait pas.4 Quand la voiture s'arrêta, elle s'élança par-dessus le marchepied avant que M. de Lavalette eût eu le temps de lui offrir la main pour descendre, et ne pouvant (d) articuler que ce mot, "Vite, vite!" Elle parcourait les longs corridors de la prison, précédant le geôlier et ses guides, et répétant toujours, "Vite, vite!" Arrivée à la porte du cachot, il fallut bien qu'elle attendît (e) que (ƒ) le geôlier en eût ouvert la serrure,7 et tiré deux énormes verrous; mais à peine (g) la porte eut-elle cédé (h), que, se précipitant dans l'intérieur, elle alla tomber dans les bras de son père, en criant, la vie. . . grâce." "Papa, l'Empereur . . Elle ne put achever sa voix se perdait en longs (i) cris, chaque parole commencée finissait par un sanglot.

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Le général de Lajolais crut (5) un instant qu'on venait le chercher (k) pour le conduire à la mort, et que sa fille ayant trompé la vigilance des gardiens, avait tout bravé pour lui faire ses adieux (?).

Mais M. de Lavalette le détrompa bientôt;10 voyant que Maria vaincue (m) par l'émotion ne pouvait articuler un son, il prit la parole:

"L'Empereur vous accorde votre grâce, général," lui dit-il, "et vous la devez au courage et à la tendresse de votre fille."11 Puis avec une émotion dont il ne pouvait se défendre, il

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raconta au général de Lajolais tout ce que sa fille avait fait pour lui.12

14

Oh! combien elle était heureuse cette jeune fille! 13 combien ce moment compensait et bien au-delà, tout ce qu'elle avait souffert jusqu'alors; souffert! avait-elle réellement souffert? Elle ne s'en souvenait (n) plus. Toutes ses souffrances s'étaient effacées (0)1 devant son père qui la serrait avec transport dans ses bras. Il faut avoir souffert soi-même,16 il faut avoir été séparé des auteurs de ses jours (p), et avoir tremblé pour leur vie, pour comprendre tout ce que ce moment de réunion avait de saint (q), de délicieux, d'ineffable. E. MARCO DE SAINT-HILAIRE. COLLOQUIAL EXERCISE

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KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH.

EXERCISE 105 (Vol. II., page 106):

1. Where were your relations last year? 2. They were in England. 3. Where did the gentlemen remain who accompanied you this morning? 4. They remained with their partners. 5. What were your friends reading when you left them? 6. They were reading the news which they had just received. 7. What does your father say? 8. He says 9. How old is that gentleman ? nothing. 10. He is nearly fifty 12. The eldest is ten years old. 11. How old are your children ? years old, and the youngest six. for your gold chain ? 13. Have you asked that gentleman 14. I have asked him for it. 15. Have you returned to the clerk the money which he had lent you? 16. I have returned it to him. 17. Did you wish to send the locksmith your keys? 18. I had a wish to send them to him, for they are broken. 19. Was it worth the while to send those bottles to the innkeeper? 20. It was worth the while to send them to him, for he had none. 21. Have you asked your father for napkins? 22. I would not ask him EXERCISE 106 (Vol. II., page 106).

for any.

1. Que vous disait le serrurier ? 2. Il me disait qu'il avait apporté ma clef. 3. Combien de lettres avez-vous portées à la poste? 4. J'en ai porté sept, trois pour vous, et quatre pour mon père. 5. Où est le monsieur qui a apporté cette lettre ? 6. Il demeure chez mon père; voulez-vous lui parler? 7. Je voulais lui envoyer une lettre que j'ai apportée d'Angleterre. 8. Avez-vous rendu à cet homme l'argent qu'il vous avait prêté? 9. Je le lui ai rendu. 10. Aviez-vous envie d'envoyer à M. votre frère la clef de votre chambre ? 11. J'avais envie de la lui envoyer. 12. Valait-il la peine de donner ce livre à M. votre frère ? 13. Il valait la peine de le lui donner, car il en avait besoin. 14. Valait-il la peine d'envoyer ces bouteilles à l'apothicaire? 15. valait la peine de les lui envoyer. 16. Où est l'aubergiste? 17. Il est en Angleterre. 18. Combien d'enfants a le serrurier? 19. Il en a dix. 20. Combien de livres a le médecin ? 21. Il a cinq cents volumes. 22. Avez-vous donné cette lettre au monsieur? 23. J'ai oublié de la lui donner.

EXERCISE 107 (Vol. II., page 107).

1. How long has Mr. L. lived in Paris? 2. He has been living there ten years. 3. Has he not lived in Lons? 4. He lived there for merly. 5. Can you tell me where the captain's son is? 6. He has been in England one year. 7. Do you know where Mr. B. lives? 8. He lived formerly in Rouen; I do not know where he lives now. 9. Have you been here long? 10. We have been here more than two

mouths.

11. How long have you had this orchard? 12. We have had it a year. 13. Do you know how far it is from Paris to Vienna ? 14. It is three hundred and six leagues from Paris to Vienna, and two

hundred leagues from Vienna to Copenhagen. 15. Has the company been here long? 16. It has been here more than two hours. 17. Is it long since you read this bill? 18. It is more than three hours ago 19. Has not your sister been reading more than half an hour? 20. She has been reading so long, that she is tired of it. 21. Have you been waiting long for this piece of music? 22. I have been waiting for it more than a year.

that I read it.

EXERCISE 108 (Vol. II., page 107).

1. Ne savez-vous pas où demeure mon père ? 2. Je sais où il demeure, mais je n'ai pas le temps d'aller chez lui aujourd'hui. 3. Combien de temps y a-t-il que le médecin demeure à Paris ? 4. Il y a dix ans qu'il y demeure. 5. Combien de temps a-t-il demeuré en Angleterre? 6. Il a demeuré en Angleterre six ans et demi. 7. Pouvez-vous me dire où demeure le serrurier? 8. Il demeure chez mon frère. 9. Y a-t-il long-temps que vous attendez ce livre ? 10. Il y a plus d'un an que je l'attends. 11. Combien de temps y a-t-il que M. votre fils apprend le grec? 12. Il y a deux ans qu'il l'apprend. 13. Combien de temps y a-t-il que M. votre frère a ce verger? 14. Il y a plus de six mois qu'il l'a. 15. Combien y a-t-il de Paris à Lyon? 16. Il y a cent seize lieues de Paris à Lyon. 17. Y a-t-il plus loin de Lyon à Genève que de Lyon à Turin ? 18. Il y a plus loin de Lyon à Turin que de Lyon à Genève. 19. Combien de temps votre père a-t-il demeuré en Allemagne? 20. Il a demeuré deux ans en Allemagne, et six mois en Angleterre. 21. Combien de temps avez-vous demeuré à Rome? 22. Nous y avons demeuré plus d'un an. 23. Y a-t-il plus d'un an que vous apprenez l'Allemand? 24. Il y a plus de quatre ans que je l'apprends.

EXERCISE 109 (Vol. II., page 138).

1. Has not that man altered his conduct? 2. He has altered his conduct. 3. Has not that large house changed proprietors ? 4. It has

changed proprietors, Captain G. has just bought it. 5. You are wet; why

do you not change your cloak? 6. Because I have no other. 7. Does not your cousin often change her opinion? 8. She very often changes it. 9. During the combat, did not that young soldier change countenance? 10. He did not change countenance. 11. Should not that patient change air? 12. The physician recommends him to go to another country. 13. Where is your grey horse? 14. I have it no longer, I exchanged it for a white one. 15. With whom have you exchanged it? 16. I exchanged it with the young man who lived here last month. 17. Can the merchant change me this forty-franc piece? 18. He cannot change it for you, he has no change. 19. Have you the change for a guinea?

LESSONS IN BOTANY.—XXX. SECTION LXXII.—GROSSULARIACEAE, OR CURRANT-WORTS. Characteristics: Calyx coloured, tubular, adherent, prolonged to a varying extent below the ovary; petals inserted upon the throat of the calyx, equal in number to the divisions of the latter; æstivation imbricated; stamens equal in number to the petals and alternate with the latter; ovaries inferior and onecelled; placentæ usually two, parietal or attached to the valves; ovules horizontal, reflexed; berry pulpy; seeds angular, dicotyledonous; embryo straight in the base of an almost corneous albumen.

Members of this natural order are usually armed with spines situated below the leaf; the leaves are alternate or fasciculated; limb palmi-lobed; petiole dilated. The flowers are disposed in axillary racemes in the species which are deprived of spines; they are solitary or few in number in the pine-bearing species. The berry is surrounded by the persistent limb of the calyx. The seeds have a gelatinous testa, in which a long raphé, or cord running between the outer and inner coverings of the seed, ramifies. The endopleura is adherent to the albumen.

The Grossulariaceae are for the most part inhabitants of the temperate and cool regions of the northern hemisphere. The genus Ribes constitutes nearly all the family to which it imparts the distinctive name. Its species contain in their herbaceous portion a resinous aromatic principle. Their fruit is filled with a saccharine mucilage in combination with malic and citric acids, and occasionally astringent matters. The white currant (Ribes album), an illustration of which is given in Fig. 227, affords a good example of the Ribes family.

Gooseberry and currant trees are so well known that any prolonged description of them would be useless. They are amongst the most delicious of cultivated fruit, and furnish no bad substitute for the vine as a wine-making material.

SECTION LXXIII.-ONAGRACEE, OR ONAGRADS. Characteristics: Calyx adherent; petals equal in number to equal in number to the petals, or double; ovary inferior, plurithe divisions of the calyx; contorted in æstivation; stamens locular; ovules reflexed; fruit capsular or bacciform, two or three-celled; seeds having a chalaza winged, interrupted, or filamentary; seed dicotyledonous, exalbuminous. The chalaza, it should be said, is the part of the seed usually swollen or discoloured, where the nutritious juices collect, and are communicated to the young plant.

The members of this natural order possess leaves without stipules; flowers sometimes axillary and solitary, sometimes in the form of a corymb or spike. They are chiefly extra-tropical, and belong for the most part to the northern temperate zone. Two species, Epilobium, or willow herb, and Circæa, or enchanter's nightshade, are mucilaginous. The ancients believed that the aqueous infusion of Epilobium angustifolium had the property of taming wild animals, and that its vinous tincture was exhilarent when administered to human beings. Enothera biennis, or biennial evening primrose, and Enothera suavolens, or sweet-scented evening primrose, originally natives of North America, but now cultivated, like many of their congeners, in our gardens, possess a saccharine root, which is sometimes used as an article of food. Fuchsias are elegant shrubs, indigenous to New Zealand and North America, now common enough in our gardens. They are remarkable for the beauty of their foliage, their petaloid calyx, and their convolute corolla. The berries of certain New Zealand species yield an agreeable perfume.

SECTION LXXIV.-ANACARDIACEÆ, OR TEREBINTHS. Characteristics: Flowers ordinarily dioecious by abortion; calyx free, or rarely adherent to the ovary; petals inserted upon a perigynous disc, or else upon a short stipes, equal in number to the divisions of the calyx; sometimes absent; imbricated in æstivation; stamens equal in number to the petals, and alternate with them, or in double or multiple number; carpels ordinarily reduced to one; unilocular or four to five distinct, one alone being fertile; ovule single, ascending, ordinarily free, curved or half-reflexed; fruit drupaceous or dry; seed dicotyledonous, exalbuminous, curved; stem woody; juice gummy or milky; leaves alternate and without stipules.

The Anacardiacea owe their properties to a resinous juice which in certain species resembles pine turpentine; in the greater number of species, however, this resinous principle is mixed with certain acrid matters, which, on contact with the

air, become black, and impart to the secretion very stimulating, sometimes venomous, properties. The bitter and astringent principles which some individuals of this natural order contain in their bark and wood modify the action of the stimulating matter. The fruit of certain species is fleshy, abundant in sugar and free acids; sometimes edible. The seeds contain a fixed oil.

The Pistacia lentiscus, or mastic tree (Fig. 228), a plant cultivated in the Grecian Archipelago, and the Pistacia Atlantica, a native of the Mauritius, are valuable for their product-mastic. This substance, employed by ourselves as the basis of several varnishes, is largely used by Orientals as a masticatory, whence its name. By these persons it is believed to purify the breath. The Pistacia terebinthus, or turpentine tree, grows spontaneously in the whole Mediterranean region. From its inward trunk flows a limpid adhesive juice, yellowish-blue in colour, and of a penetrating odour, something between that of citron and fennel. Its taste is balsamic, exempt from bitterness and acridity. This substance, known as Scio turpentine, is rarely pure, and chemistry is unequal to detect the fraud. Its seeds, formerly employed in passive hæmorrhages and dysentery, are at present held in but little repute. The Pistacia vera, or true pistachia tree, originally a native of Persia and Syria, is now grown in the whole Mediterranean region; its oily seeds, under the name of green almonds, are very agreeable in taste, and are employed by druggists in France as the basis of certain emulsions.

The mango (Mangifera Indica) is a tree originally of Asia, but it is now cultivated in many tropical regions for the sake of its fruit. This is very agreeable in taste, but it must be sparingly partaken of, or much constitutional disorder results.

In exchange for the mango which America has received from

Asia, the latter continent and Africa have derived from America | black when exposed to the air, and which, after being dis

the cashew-tree (Anacardium occidentale, Fig. 229). It is indigenous to Central America and the West India Islands; its nut, small and reniform, termed the cashew, grows at the summit of a fleshy panicle, like a large pear in general appearance. The pericarp contains a caustic oil; the seed is almond-tasted; the peduncle, named the cashew apple, is acidulous, saccharine, and a little acrid, but nevertheless agreeable. From the epicarp a blistering ointment is sometimes prepared, and the entire fruit is useful in certain diseases. Cashew gum exudes from the trunk of the tree, but it is applied to no useful purpose.

The Anacardium Indicum is a native of the East Indies. Its immature seeds yield a glutinous matter resembling birdlime, from which the celebrated Chinese varnish is prepared.

solved in a drying oil, constitutes the celebrated black Japanese varnish. The Rhus radicans and Rhus toxicodendron are both natives of North America, and but slightly distinguishable from each other. When the period of flowering arrives, both these plants secrete an abundant quantity of milky juice, which turns black in contact with the air. This juice is so exceedingly acrid, that if a person sits in the shade of one of the poison sumachs, his skin becomes violently inflamed, reddens, swells, and is covered with pustules. The leaves of this sumach are recommended in paralysis, dartrous affections of the skin, and even consumption.

There are certain species of Schinus which emit noxious effluvia. The Schinus molle furnishes a mastic which is slightly purgative. Its bark

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The sumachs possess various properties. Fustic sumach (Rhus cotinus, Fig. 230) is indigenous in eastern Europe; its bark, slightly aromatic and very astringent, is considered by some as a good substitute for that of Cinchona; its leaves are also employed in medicine, and from its wood a yellow dye-stuff is extracted. The Currier's sumach (Rhus coriaria) is a native of the Mediterranean region. Its acid fruits are used by the Turks as a condiment; its leaves and young shoots are employed by curriers and dyers. The

fruit and flowers of the Rhus typhina, Rhus glabra, and Rhus elegans, all natives of North America, are employed as condiments. The Jamaica sumach (Rhus metopii) secretes a purgative gum resin from its bark. The Rhus vernix, or varnish sumach, is a Japanese shrub, from the stem of which is obtained, by incision, a milky juice, which thickens and turns

and leaves are aromatic, and its drupe is saccharine. The Duvaua dependens is a little tree, a native of Chili, the infusion of the seeds of which are stomachic, diuretic, and anti-hysteric; moreover, an intoxicating drink named chicha is prepared from them. The decoction of its bark and the gum secreted by the tree are balsamic and healing when applied to wounds. The species of the genus Spondias are not without interest. The Spondias purpurea, or purple-fruited hog-plum, of the West Indies, has drupes of an acidulated saccharine taste, very agreeable as food. The drupes of Spondias lutea, or yellow-fruited hog-plum, are smaller, but more useful, being employed as a medicine. The congener of the two spreading species is cultivated in the Friendly and Society Islands. Its fruit is very agreeable and wholesome, almost rivalling in delicacy the pine-apple.

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