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READINGS IN FRENCH. VI.
LE VIEUX ARBRE ET LE JARDINIER.
UN jardinier dans son jardin
Avait un vieux arbre stérile ;1
C'était un grand poirier2 qui jadis fut fertile ;
Mais il avait vieilli; (a) tel est notre destin!
Le jardinier ingrat veut l'abattre un matin.3

Le voilà qui prend (b) sa cognée;
Au premier coup l'arbre lui dit :
"Respecte mon grand âge, et souviens-toi (c) du fruit'
Que je t'ai donné chaque année.

La mort va me saisir, je n'ai plus qu'un instant;
N'assassine pas un mourant

Qui fut ton bienfaiteur." 'Je te coupe avec peine,"
Répond le jardinier; "mais j'ai besoin de bois."5
Alors, gazouillant à la fois,

De rossignols une centaine

S'écrie: "Epargne-le, nous n'avons plus que lui;6
Lorsque ta femme vient s'asseoir sous son ombrage,
Nous la réjouissons par notre doux ramage;7
Elle est seule souvent, nous charmons son ennui." ()
Le jardinier les chasse, et rit (e) de leur requête ;8
Il frappe un second coup. D'abeilles un essaim (f)
Sort, aussitôt du tronc, 1o en lui disant: "Arrête;
Ecoute-nous, homme inhumain: "

Si tu nous laisses cet asile,
Chaque jour nous te donnerons

Un miel délicieux dont tu peux (9) à la ville
Porter et vendre les rayons (h);

Cela te touche-t-il ?" "J'en pleure de tendresse,1?"
Répond l'avare.jardinier :

"Eh! que ne dois-je (i) pas à ce pauvre poirier 13
Qui m'a nourri dans ma jeunesse ?

Ma femme quelquefois vient (j) ouïr ces oiseaux 14
C'en est assez pour moi; qu'ils (k) chantent en repos.
Et vous qui daignerez augmenter mon aisance,
Je veux pour vous de fleurs semer tout ce canton." 15
Cela dit, il s'en (2) va 16 sûr de sa récompense,
Et laisse vivre le vieux tronc.
Comptez (m) sur la reconnaissance 17
Quand l'intérêt vous en répond.

COLLOQUIAL EXERCISE.

1. Qu'est-ce que le jardinier avait dans son jardin?

2. Quelle espèce d'arbre était-ce? 3. Que voulait faire le jardinier! 4. Que lui dit l'arbre au premier coup de cognée ?

5. Que lui répondit le jardinier? 6. Que lui dirent les rossignols? 7. Qu'ajoutèrent-ils en parlant de sa femme?

8. Le jardinier se laissa-t-il persuader par les rossignols?

9. Que fait-il encore?

(a) Vieilli, grown old.

FLORIAN.

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NOTES.

(3) From pouvoir.

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TANDIS que la Louisiane faisait (a) encore partie des colonies de la France, plusieurs familles françaises fondèrent des établissements dans ce beau pays.2 Sur la lisière d'une vaste forêt, traversée par un des fleuves nombreux qui arrosent cette région, était allé s'établir un ancien négociant à qui on avait concédé (b) un vaste territoire à défricher. Possesseur de moyens assez considérables, actif, laborieux, M. Dérambert s'était bientôt vu à la tête d'un domaine fort étendu." C'es Serrains, naguère encore incultes et sauvages, se couvraient (c) maintenant de riches moissons de riz, de maïs et de froment.? M. Dérambert avait une femme et trois jolis enfants, deux

garçons et une fille; ces enfants faisaient leur joie, leur bonheur. Auguste avait (d) huit ans, Fanny sept, et le plus jeune, le petit Alfred, en avait quatre à peine. Tous les trois s'aimaient entre eux avec une tendresse égale; tout était commun, peines, plaisirs.

Leur promenade favorite était un petit vallon1o situé à quel ques pas de la maison de leur père. Là, un châtaignier d'une grosseur prodigieuse étalait (e) son épais feuillage," et ils pouvaient, à l'ombre que projetaient ses rameaux, se livrer à leurs jeux, sans avoir à redouter les rayons d'un soleil trop ardent.

Un jour, qu'assis (ƒ) au pied du châtaignier, Auguste et Fanny tressaient, pour leur petit frère, des nattes 12 avec des brins de jones qu'il allait cueillir tout joyeux, leurs oreilles furent tout à coup frappées par des hurlements plaintifs 13 qui paraissaient (g) venir de la forêt. Bientôt après, en effet, ils aperçurent un magnifique chien de Terre-Neuve qui se dirigeait (h) vers eux en se traînant avec peine. Chaque fois qu'il posait à terre une de ses pattes de devant, il poussait un cri de douleur. Les enfants coururent (i) vers lui; le pauvre animal s'arrêta à leur approche, les regarda d'un air piteux et caressant.16 Puis tendant vers eux sa patte ensanglantée il semblait leur dire: Secourez-moi." 2 17

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1. À quelle époque cette histoire commence-t-elle ?

2. Qu'avaient fait plusieurs familles françaises ?

3. Où un ancien négociant s'étaitil établi ?

4. Que lui avait-on concédé ? 5. Que possédait-il ?

6. Quelle avait été la récompense de l'industrie de M. Derambert?

7. Quels changements remarquaiton dans ces terres naguère sauvages?

8. Combien d'enfants M. Déram

9.

bert avait-il?

Quel était leur age?

10. Quelle était leur promenade favorite?

(a) From faire.

(b) Concédé, granted. (c) From couvrir.

11. Quel arbre y trouvait-on? 12. Que faisaient un jour, Auguste et Fanny au pied du châtaignier?

13. Qu'entendirent-ils tout à coup? 14. Qu'aperçurent-ils ensuite ? 15. Que faisait le chien en posant à terre une de ses pattes de devant ?

16. Que fit le chien à leur ap proche?

17. Que semblait-il leur dire ? 18. Que fit alors Fanny? 19. Où Auguste courut-il? 20. Et Alfred, que faisait-il? 21. Que vit (m) Fanny en exami nant la patte du chien?

NOTES.

(d) Avait huit ans, was eight years old.

(e) Etalait, displayed.

(f) Assis, seated.

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KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH.
EXERCISE 110 (Vol. II., page 138).

1. Pourquoi ne changez-vous pas d'habit? 2. Pour une très-bonne raison, parceque je n'en ai pas d'autre. 3. Votre père a-t-il changé de maison? 4. Non, Monsieur, mais nous avons intention de le faire demain. 5. Cet enfant a-t-il changé de conduite? 6. Il a changé de vie, il est très-bon maintenant. 7. Votre frère n'avait-il pas pour, n'a-t-il pas changé de visage? 8. Il a changé de visage, mais il n'avait pas peur. 9. N'avez-vous pas changé de chambre ? 10. Je n'ai pas changé de chambre, ma chambre est très-bonne. 11. Ne vous tardet-il pas d'être en France? 12. Il me tarde d'y être. 13. Mme. votre mère ne tarde-t-elle trop? 14. Elle tarde bien à venir. 15. Avezvous changé la pièce de quarante francs? 16. Je ne l'ai pas encore changée. 17. Pourquoi ne l'avez-vous pas changée? 18. Parceque votre père n'a pas de monnaie. 19. Avez-vous la monnaie d'une guinée! 20. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai que douze schellings.

EXERCISE 111 (Vol. II., page 138).

1. Is it necessary to have a passport to travel in France? 2. It is necessary to have one. 3. Do the English provide themselves with passports to travel in England? 4. A passport is not needed in England. 5. Do you like travelling on railroads? 6. I would rather travel on railroads than on common roads. 7. Have you brought

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your master-keys? 8. I have no master-keys, I have only common keys. 9. Did your brother come in a steamboat? 10. He came in a sailing-boat. 11. Have you a four-horse carriage? 12. No, Sir, we have only a one-horse gig. 13. Has your brother built a steam-mill? 14. He has had two mills built, a wind-mill and a water-mill. Has your companion engaged a fencing-master? 16. No, Sir, he has already a drawing-master and a dancing-master. 17. How many bedrooms have you? 18. We have two. 19. Have you a bottle of wine? 20. No, Sir, but I have a wine-bottle. 21. Do you see the owls? 22. No, but I see the bats.

EXERCISE 112 (Vol. II., page 139).

1. M. votre père est-il en Angleterre? 2. Non, Monsieur, il est en France avec mon frère. 3. Ont-ils pris des passe-ports? 4. Oui, Monsieur, ils en ont pris deux. 5. Faut-il avoir un passe-port pour voyager en Amérique? 6. Non, Monsieur, mais il faut en avoir un pour voyager en Italie. 7. Y a-t-il un bateau à vapeur de Calais à Douvres? 8. Il y en a plusieurs. 9. Y a-t-il un chemin de fer de Paris à Bruxelles ? 10. Il y en a un de Paris à Bruxelles, et un de Paris à Tours. 11. M. votre frère a-t-il acheté un moulin à vent? 12. Non, Monsieur, mais il a fait bâtir un moulin à vapeur. 13. Y a-t-il beaucoup de moulins à vent en Amérique? 14. Non, Monsieur, mais il y a beaucoup de moulins à eau et à vapeur. 15. Votre cousin apprend-il le dessin? 16. Il ne l'apprend pas, il ne peut trouver un maitre de dessin. 17. Le maître d'armes est-il dans la salle à manger? 18. Non, Monsieur, il est dans le salon. 19. Votre cousin est-il dans a chambre à coucher? 20. Non, Monsieur, il est sorti. 21. Combien de chambres y a-t-il dans votre maison? 22. Cinq; une cuisine, une salle à manger, un salon et deux chambres à coucher. 23. Y a-t-il des chats-huants ici? 24. Oui, Monsieur, et des chauves-souris aussi.

EXERCISE 113 (Vol. II., page 172).

1. Will you lead your children to school? 2. I will take them to school and to church. 3. Will the gardener bring vegetables to market? 4. He will bring some there. 5. Where will you take that horse? 6. I will take it to the stable. 7. Will you feed it? 8. I will give it hay and oats. 9. Will you give it water? 10. I will take it to the watering-place. 11. Will you pay what you owe? 12. Will you not walk? 13. I will take a walk this afternoon. 14. Will you take a walk or a ride? 15. I will take a ride, and my sister will take a drive. 16. Will you walk much in your journey to Paris? We will not walk at all. 18. Will you not call the pedlar? 19. I shall not call him. 20. Will you not buy that villa? 21. We will buy it if we can. 22. Will it not freeze this night? 23. I do not believe it, it is too warm. 24. Will you not sow all the wheat which you harvest? 25. I shall only sow a part of it, I shall sell the remainder. 26. I will seal my letters and take them to the post-office. EXERCISE 114 (Vol. II., page 172).

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4.

1. Le monsieur n'appellera-t-il pas ses enfants ? 2. Il appellera ses enfants et ceux de sa sœur. 3. N'amènerez-vous pas vos enfants? Je ne puis les amener. 5. Ne voulez-vous pas vous promener à cheval cette après-midi ? 6. Nous nous promènerons en voiture demain. 7. N'achèterez-vous pas les chevaux de mon père? 8. Je ne les achèterai pas, je n'ai pas d'argent. 9. N'appellerez-vous pas le colporteur? 10. Je ne veux pas l'appeler, je ne veux rien acheter. 11. Paierezvous le tailleur ? 12. Je lui paierai mon habit. 13. Ne gèlera-t-il pas demain ? 14. Il gèlera demain; il fait très-froid. 15. Ne sèmerezvous pas de l'avoine dans ce champ? 16. Je ne sèmerai pas d'avoine; j'y sèmerai du blé. 17. Mènerez-vous votre soeur à l'école ? 18. Je l'y mènerai cette après-midi. 19. Ne mènerez-vous pas votre fils au marché? 20. Je ne l'y mènerai pas. 21. Le jardinier ne mènera-t-il pas son cheval à l'abreuvoir ? 22. Il l'y mènera, 23. Donnerezvous de l'avoine à votre cheval? 24. Je lui donnerai du foin. 25. Amènerez-vous votre fils? 26. Je l'amènerai demain. 27. Amènerat-il son cheval? 28. Il amènera son cheval et sa voiture. 29. Pourquoi portez-vous ce petit enfant ? 30. Il est trop malade pour marcher. 31. M. votre frère vendra-t-il ses propriétés ? 32. Il n'en vendra qu'une partie.

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EXERCISE 115 (Vol. II., page 173).

1. Will you not come to see us to-morrow? 2. I shall go to see you, if the weather permits. 3. Will you not send for the physician, your son is ill? 4. I will go for him myself. 5. When I am tired, I will walk more slowly. 6. When you know his dwelling, shall you go to see him? 7. I shall go and see him as soon as I know where he lives. 8. Shall you not see him to-day? 9. I shall see him this afternoon, 10. Will you be able to accompany us? 11. I shall do it with much pleasure. 12. Will you not send them strawberries? 13. I will send them some, when mine are ripe. 14. Will it not be necessary to write to them soon? 15. When we have heard from their relation, it will be necessary to write to them. 16. What shall we do to-morrow? 17. We will go hunting. 18. Will you not go to your father's? 19. We will certainly go. 20. When your guitar is arrived, will you lend it? 21. I shall not be able to lend it. 22. At what hour shall you leave to-morrow? 23. I shall leave at five in the morning. 24. Will you not go out this evening? 25. I shall not go out, and I shall go to bed early.

HYDROSTATICS.-VII.

LIFTING WHEEL-CHAIN PUMP-LIFTING PUMP-COMMON PUMP-FORCE PUMP-FIRE-ENGINE.

THE next machine for raising water which we shall notice is the Lifting Wheel. This is an ordinary breast-wheel with the floats inclined backwards; but instead of deriving motion from the water, it is turned by machinery in the opposite direction, and thus raises the water into the channel above. It is, in fact, a breast-wheel with the action reversed. In comparing the merits of these different machines, we must consider which of them causes least wasteful expenditure of power, and also which is the simplest and least liable to get out of order. As a rule, too, the more complicated the machine, the greater is the loss from friction of the water against the sides, and from opposing currents. Now, in the lifting wheel just mentioned, there is a loss by leakage of the water between the floats and the sides, and if a stone or piece of wood get in, there is a danger of its injuring the wheel; still the machine is simple in construction, and where the water has not to be raised to any great height, may be used with advantage.

Another way of making this machine is to use an over-shot wheel instead of a breast-wheel. Openings are then made in

the inside of the cylinder, and

troughs placed so that the buckets, when they are tilted by the revolutions of the wheel, empty their contents through these openings. There are usually two of these troughs, one above the other, for some of the water is emptied as soon as the buckets are slightly inclined, and this flows into the lower one, while, if the buckets are well shaped, the greater portion remains in them till they reach nearly the highest part of the wheel, where the second trough is placed.

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In digging out foundations for buildings, or in making embankments to keep out water, it is frequently necessary to employ a pump of some kind to remove the water that accumulates, and thus keep the work dry; and as there is often a large amount of muddy water to be removed, and many stones are present, it is desirable to have a machine made without valves, so as not to be liable to get out of repair; it should also be capable of being easily moved, and set up again at a fresh place. Now these requisites are best obtained by means of the common chain pump, which is represented in the annexed figure (Fig. 33).

Fig. 33.

Two wheels with arms radiating like spokes are procured. One of these, B, is fixed beneath the surface of the water; the other, A, is placed above the level to which it has to be pumped. This latter is turned by an engine or any other motive power that is available. Round these wheels passes an endless chain, composed of bars of iron jointed together; to the middle of each of these joints of the chain a float-board is fixed. These are all made of the same size, so as to fit a vertical tube, which is placed with its lower end below the surface of the water, while at the upper end a spout is fixed, from which the water is conveyed away.

The wheel A is turned so that the floats ascend in the tube, and it will easily be seen that as each successive board enters it raises the quantity of water contained between it and the board above. There is, of course, a considerable loss by leakage between the floats and the side of the tube, but practically this is of little importance, and it diminishes with the speed at which the pump is worked.

Frequently the floats, instead of being fixed to the joints of

the chain, as shown here, are hinged to one side, and thus fall flat when descending. The wheels A B may then be replaced by ordinary flat sheaves.

This pump can be made to work equally well if the tube be inclined instead of being vertical, and this adds to its usefulness, as it renders it more easily applied in many cases.

A strange modification of this is sometimes employed. Two wheels are fixed as before, but instead of an endless chain with floats, a flat rope, loosely woven of wool or horse-hair, passes round them; flannel is also sometimes used for the purpose. When this is driven rapidly it licks up, as it were, a large quantity of water which forms a layer on its surface half an inch or more in thickness. When it reaches the upper wheel this is thrown off by centrifugal force, but it may be removed at any place by letting the rope pass between rollers. This pump has not come into general use, but a much larger amount of water can be raised by means of it than would be supposed. One of them might be seen in action a short time since at the London Polytechnic, where also are working models of several other hydraulic machines.

The only other machine of the first class which we shall explain now is the Lifting Pump. Care must be taken not to confound this with the common or suction-pump, the principle on which it works being entirely different.

The mouth of the tube in which the water is to be raised is immersed some depth in the water, a valve opening upwards being placed in it a little below the level of the water outside. A piston with a valve also opening upwards is made to work the lower part of this, and at each stroke forces some of the water up the tube, the valve in which prevents its return. Fig. 34 will make this more clear. A B represents the pipe in which the water is to be raised, the valve being placed at c, a little below the surface. D is the piston with its valve; and this is moved by the arrangement of pump-rods shown, the part в of the pipe being bent so as not to interfere with the motion of the rods. In the figure the piston is supposed to be rising; the water therefore opens the valve c and rises in B. When D has reached its highest point, c closes from the weight of the water above it, and while the piston descends, the pressure of the external water trying to maintain its level opens the valve in D and allows the tube again to fill. Thus it will be seen that at every stroke of the piston the quantity of water contained between D when at its lowest point and c is raised in the pipe. In this pump there is obviously no limit to the height to which the water can be raised other than the strength of the tube and the power required. These of course increase with the height, for the power applied to the pump-handle has to support the weight of a column of water equal in area to the piston, and whose height is equal to that of the spout above the water in the well, and also that of the pump-rods.

Fig. 34.

This kind of pump is chiefly used where the depth from which the water has to be raised is too great to admit of the use of the common or suction-pump. The main disadvantages attending it, are the length, and therefore the weight, of the pumprods; and also the fact that the valves must be situated down the well, and below the surface of the water, and therefore are difficult to get at when it is necessary to make any repairs or alterations.

A

Sometimes this pump is constructed in a simpler way. large tube or cylinder is fixed vertically, and has at the bottom a valve opening inwards through which the water enters. A large and heavy plunger hangs loosely in this cylinder; at the collar, however, it is made to fit water-tight. The pipe in which the water is to be raised is also made to open into the lower part of the cylinder, a valve being placed in it, as shown in Fig. 35, to prevent the return of the water. The plunger is suspended by a chain, and when it is raised the water enters the cylinder through the valve at the bottom. The piston is then

allowed to descend by its own weight, the valve at the bottom immediately closes, and the water is forced up the side pipe. When the piston again rises, the valve in this pipe closes, thereby preventing any reflux, and the cylinder fills as before. If two such pumps are fixed near together, the plungers being connected to opposite ends of a beam turning on its centre, their weights will balance each other, and thus leave only the weight of the water to be overcome by the power. In such a case the pump may be worked by a man walking from end to end of the beam; and as in this way his power is mainly employed in raising his own weight, a large amount of work may be accomplished, especially as, owing to the simple construction of the machine, there is little loss from friction. This apparatus, then, though rude in construction, is an economical mode of employing power, and answers its purpose well.

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Fig. 35.

We will now consider the second class of machines, or those which act by the pressure of the air. As we shall see when we come to treat of pneu matics, the air presses on all surfaces with a pressure of about 15lbs. per square inch. This must at present be taken for granted, but will be fully explained shortly. By means of this pressure all the machines in this class work.

Now of these the most important, because by far the most commonly used, is the ordinary suction-pump. The construction and action of this will easily be understood by reference to Fig. 36. F is the suction-pipe, which passes down into the well from which the water is to be brought. This pipe is usually fitted with a grating, or else the end is closed, and a number of small openings bored near it, so that the water is slightly strained, and stones and other bodies, which would interfere with the action of the valves, are excluded. The barrel D fits on to the end of the suction-pipe, a valve s opening upwards being inserted at the junction of the two. This valve with its setting is known as the "lower box," and should be made so that it can be taken out for repairs without disturbing the barrel. Prepresents the plunger or upper box; this, too, is fitted with a flap valve, and is fixed to the piston-rod, motion being communicated to it by the handle, which is a bent lever of .the first kind.

When the pump is first set to work, all the parts are full of air, which has to be removed, and as the valves are not usually very accurately made, there is sometimes a little difficulty in accomplishing this. A little water, however, poured into the barrel makes the valves close more nearly air-tight. When the piston is raised, a partial vacuum is produced in F, the air pressing on the water in the well forces it up into the tube to supply this. Thus at each stroke some of the air is expelled, till at last the water rises so as to pass through the valve into the barrel. The pipe is then full of water, and remains

So.

E

Fig. 36.

The valve, however, must not be more than about thirty feet above the water in the well, or the water will not rise to it. When the water has thus reached the lower box, it will at the next ascent of the piston rise and fill the barrel of the pump; and as the piston is again depressed, the valve s will close, and the water will then open the valve in the plunger and rise above it. This water is by the next rise of the piston brought to the level of the spout, from which it issues, while at the same time a fresh supply of water rises into the barrel. Thus at each stroke the quantity of water contained in the barrel between

the two valves is raised and issues from the spout. It is clear that here, too, the weight of the whole column of water in the suction-pipe has to be supported by the power applied. Pumps of this kind were employed long before it was known on what principle they acted. The explanation then given was that when the piston was raised a vacuum was created, and, since "Nature abhorred a vacuum," the water rushed in to fill it. This explanation satisfied people for some time, but one day some men were fixing a pump in an unusually deep well, and found to their surprise that they could not raise the water above thirty or thirty-two feet. Having tried in vain to solve the difficulty, they consulted Galileo, the most celebrated philosopher of the day, who replied that "Nature only abhorred a vacuum to the height of thirty-two feet." This explanation, however, did not satisfy one of his pupils, named Torricelli; so he, and afterwards Pascal, tried various experiments with different liquids in the place of water, and at length hit on the correct explanation that it was the pressure of the external air which caused the liquid to rise in the pump, and that therefore it would only rise till its pressure was such as to balance that of the air. This height is found to vary between thirty and thirty-four feet. We see then that though this pump is generally used, it will not answer when the water has to be raised more than thirty feet, nor will it raise it above its own level. In cases, therefore, where these are required, a different kind, known as the Force Pump, is employed (Fig. 37). This machine is usually placed some distance above the level of the water, which is first raised in it on the principle of the ordinary pump, and then forced to the required elevation. The annexed illustration will explain its construction. The suction-pipe and barrel are constructed in exactly the same way as in the common pump; the plunger, however, instead of having a valve in it, is made solid; and, instead of the spout for the water to issue from, a pipe leads from the lower part of the barrel to a reservoir or air-chamber, c. A valve, B, closes the opening of this, and another pipe, D, passes into the reservoir, its mouth being rather below the middle; up this pipe the water is forced. We will suppose the barrel to be full of water, and the piston just beginning to descend. The valve A closes at once, and the water, having no other escape, passes through the valve B into the reservoir c. The air which fills the part of this above the mouth of the pipe acts as a spring, and checks the flow, but by its reaction forces the water up the pipe D. When the piston again rises, B closes, and a fresh supply of water enters through A, and the same process is repeated at each stroke.

Fig. 37.

This pump is very similar in construction to the lifting pump before described, only it is placed above the water, thereby saving the weight of the rods, and it acts partly by suction. When made in this way, the greatest strain-if the water has to be raised to any great height-is when the handle is being raised. This is rather a disadvantage, and to remedy it the top of the barrel is sometimes closed, the pump-rod being made to work through a collar, which is packed to prevent the escape of the water. A valve is then placed in the piston, and the pipe leading to the air-chamber proceeds from the upper instead of from the lower part of the barrel. The water in this way rises above the piston, and when the latter is raised, is forced into the chamber, and thus up the pipe D.

In either of these modes of construction the water is only raised while the piston is moving in one direction. A reference to the figure will show that when the piston is rising it draws up the water into the barrel, and when it descends it forces it into the reservoir. A plan has, however, been devised by which both these processes may be carried on simultaneously, and thus a constant stream of water be produced. A branch of the supply-pipe, A (Fig. 38), enters the lower part of the cylinder at a, and another branch enters the upper part at b; in the same way branches of the exit-pipe, B, communicate with the upper and lower parts of the cylinder at c and d. These openings are closed by valves which all open to the right. The piston is solid, and in

the figure is supposed to be descending; the valve b at the upper supply-pipe is therefore open, and the water is sucked up through it into the cylinder, at the same time the water under the piston is being driven up the lower exit-pipe. When the motion of the piston is reversed, the other two valves open, and the water enters by the lower supply-pipe, and escapes by the upper exit. A constant flow is thus produced; a further advantage of this is that the pressure is the same on the piston-rod whichever way it is moving.

B

The well-known fire-engine is merely a combination of two single-action force-pumps. These are made of a large diameter, and force the water into a strong air-chamber, from which the hose to convey the water to the fire issues. A lever is supported by its centre point just above the machine, and the cross poles by which the firemen work the engine are fastened to the end of this, the piston-rods being attached about the middle of each arm. Hence, since several men work at each side, and there is a gain from the leverage, the water is driven with great force, and can be thrown to a considerable height. The air-chamber is made very strong, and of large dimensions, so that the stream of water flows at a constant rate; and though the pumps are only single-action, yet as one piston is rising while the other is falling the motion is nearly uniform.

Fig. 38.

M

In mining operations pumps have to be employed on a very large scale. The water finds its way through the cracks and crevices, and would soon entirely flood the mine were not large and powerful pumps erected. In some cases the weight of water raised is as much as twenty times that of the coal. The depth, too, is usually very great, and thus it is quite impracticable to raise the water at one lift, for the pressure on the pipes would be so great as to burst them. A number of small cisterns are therefore placed at about equal distances above one another. From each of these the water is raised by a force-pump with a solid plunger to the one above. All these plungers are fixed to one pumprod, which passes from the top to the bottom of the mine, usually in a part of the shaft separated for the purpose. A powerful engine at the top lifts this rod with all the plungers, and they fall by their own weight. The plans pursued are, however, very various, and depend very much upon the nature of the mine and the special peculiarities of the case. Sometimes, when the mine is sunk on the side of a hill, the water can be discharged by a side channel some way below the mouth, and where there is a stream of water at the mouth of the pit this is made to pass down a pipe to the level of the side channel, and there by its pressure to raise the water from the bottom. The action of this apparatus is very ingenious, but it can rarely be applied, and need not, therefore, be explained here.

There is one other apparatus, known as Hero's Fountain, which raises water

A

B

Fig. 39.

by the compression of the air. This is represented in Fig. 39. The tray at the top is filled with water, which rushes down the pipe B, and thus compresses the air in the lower vessel, N; this compressed air escapes by the pipe A, and pressing on the liquid in the upper reservoir, M, causes it to issue from the jet. This apparatus ceases to act as soon as the lower reservoir is filled, and the water must then be drawn off by the tap seen under N.

LESSONS IN ITALIAN.-V.

IV. THE DIPHTHONGS.

in words, but are, nevertheless, not diphthongs; as, for example, coagulare (ko-ah-goo-láh-rai), to coagulate; coerente (ko-ai-réncoincide; raunare (rah-oo-náh-rai), to assemble; aempiere (ahtai), coherent; caos (káh-os), chaos; coincidere (ko-in-tchée-dai-rai),

I HAVE now to speak of the diphthongs; but before entering into details I may remark that these letters differ materially from the English, inasmuch as the two vowels forming a diph-êm-pecai-rai), to satisfy, fill; reale (rai-áh-lai), royal, real, loyal; thong do not entirely merge into one sound, but are in Italian riunire (ree-oo-née-rai), to reunite; viola (vée-o-lah), he violates; viottolo (vee-ót-to-lo), narrow passage or way, roundabout way; more or less distinctly heard, though only pronounced by one Dione (dee-ó-nai), Dion; Tiziano (tee-tsee-áh-no), Titian; Teodoro opening of the mouth, and with one emission of the air or voice, which gives them the value of one sound. This broad and (tai-o-do-ro), Theodore; riesco (rée-ê-sko), I succeed; reato (raigeneral characteristic, however, prevails among all Italian diph-ah-to), guilt or sin; paese (pah-ái-zai), country; reina (rai-éethongs, that there must be a ruling sound, requiring a greater nah), queen; leone (lai-ó-nai), lion; mansueto (mahn-soo-ê-to), stress of the voice and more distinctness of utterance, which tame, gentle, mild. ruling sound is at one time on the first, at another on the second of the two vowels. In those diphthongs where the second of the two vowels is the ruling sound, the voice glides more rapidly from the first vowel to the second, and is, as it were, absorbed by it. The second is on that account heard with greater distinctness, and such diphthongs present more of a united sound; while in those diphthongs where the first of the two vowels is the ruling sound, the second is somewhat more distinctly heard than the first vowel of those diphthongs, which approach to a united sound, though shortly and quickly trailed along, as it were, by the first.

The second kind or class may be termed, on this account, the separated diphthongs; the first class the united diphthongs-though I must caution the reader not to understand these words in their strictly literal sense; because, as stated before, in all Italian diphthongs the two vowels are more or less distinctly heard. United diphthongs are, for example :

ia, as in fiato (feeáh-to), breath; biada (beeáh-dah), corn; piano (pecáh-no), even, slow.

ie, as in lieto (leeê-to), cheerful; bieco (becê-ko), squinting; priego (precê-go), request, prayer.

io, as in fiore (feeó-rai), flower; piove (pecô-vai), it rains; brioso (bree-ó-so), lively; chioma (keeô-mah), head of

hair.

iu, as in piu (pecóo), more; fiume (fecóo-mai), a river; schiuma (skeeóo-mah), foam, scum.

ua, as in guasto (gwáh-sto), destruction; quà (kwàh), here, hither; quale (kwáh-lai), who.

ue, as in guerra (gwêrr-rah), war; Guelfo (gwêl-fo), a Guelph; questo (kwái-sto), this.

ui, as in guisa (gwée-zah), guise, manner; Guido (gwée-do), Guy; qui (kwee), here.

uo, as in cuore (kood-rai), heart; suono (sooô-no), sound; uomo (ooô-mo), man.

Separated diphthongs are, for example:-

ae, as in aere (áhai-rai), air, gas; aerimante (ahai-ree-máhn-
tai), one who predicts by the air, or by aeromancy.
ai, as in laido (láhee-do), ugly; maisi (mahee-sée), yes, in-
deed.

ao, as in Paolo (páho-lo), Paul.

au, as in aura (áhoo-rah), a soft breeze; lauro (láhoo-ro), laurel; fraude (fráhoo-dai), deceit; fauno (fáhoo-no), fawn; causa (káhoo-zah), a cause (at law), affair.

I have classed au as a separated diphthong where the first vowel is the ruling sound. There are, however, words containing that diphthong, in which u, the second, is the ruling sound: thus, paura (pahóo-rah), fear; baule (bahóo-lai), portmanteau; Sauble (sahóo-lai), Saul. But even in this class of words a and u must be distinctly heard; a, as the first of the vowels, cannot be glided over rapidly and absorbed by the u, as would be the case if a united diphthong. The diphthong au must, therefore, always be classed among the separated diphthongs.

eo, as in Eolo (co-lo), Eolus.

eu, as in Europa (aioo-rô-pah), Europe; feudo (fêoo-do), a feud or feoff; Seleuco (sai-lêoo-ko), Seleucus. The vowel i before any other vowel, and the vowel u before o, as they occur in the united diphthongs, make in the pronunciation of Italian precisely the same impression as a grave or diatonic note in music, slightly but distinctly touched, to glide over to the second ruling vowel. They are very easy transitions, and carry with them a particular charm, giving to the sound a certain roundness and fulness, thus contributing greatly, by the frequency of the diphthongs in which they occur, to the musical character of the Italian tongue.

It must be noted that there are vowels which come together

The reader will have remarked that I have, in the above examples, separated the two vowels which come together into syllables, thereby showing that they are not diphthongs, though they may appear to be such. Indeed, if those sounds we e diph thongs, it is obvious that they could not be used as separate syllables, as they must in Italian spelling, though the poets, by their special licence, generally use them as one syllable. tion of three and sometimes four vowels in the Italian language, Some grammarians are of opinion that in cases of the coali those vowels form one syllable uttered with one and the same emission of the voice; and they term the coalition of three vowels a triphthong, and the coalition of four a quadriphthong, if may so express it. They have been, perhaps, led into that belief by the example of the poets, who in the middle of a verse for Italian poets to count two or three syllables, being mere use the triphthongs like one syllable. It is certainly allowable vowels, as one; but it would be strange to found grammar on poetical licences, which are, strictly speaking, exceptions to grammatical rule. The following examples, generally cited as triphthongs, are spelt like words of two syllables, though, as I have already observed, the poets use them in the middle of a verse like words of one syllable; and this is reason enough why they should not be considered triphthongs, i.e., coalitions of three vowels forming one sound and one syllable; as, mici (meeê-ee), my (pl.); tuoi (tooô-ee), thy (pl.); suoi (sood-ee), his (pl.); guai (gwáh-ee), wailings; buoi (booô-ce), oxen; vuoi (voob-ee), thou wilt; puoi (pooô-ee), thou canst; appiuolo (ahp-pee-ooô-lo), a kind of apple tree; cedriuolo (tchai-ùree-ooo-lo), a cucumber: mariuolo (mah-ree-ooo-lo), a sharper; vetriulo (vai tree-ooo-lo), vitriol.

Examples of the so-called quadriphthongs will be given and commented on as they occur.

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