16. A numeral figure is often prefixed to a letter. This is called a co-efficient. It shows how often the quantity expressed by the letter is to be taken. Thus 26 signifies twice b; and 96, 9 times b, or 9 multiplied into b.

The co-efficient may be either a whole number or a fraction. Thus b is two-thirds of b. When the co-efficient is not expressed, 1 is always to be understood. Thus a is the same as 1a, that is to say, once a, or one times.

17. The co-efficient may also be a letter, as well as a figure. In the quantity mb, m may be considered the co-efficient of b; because b is to be taken as many times as there are units in m. If m stands for 6, then mb is six times b. In 3abc, 3 may be considered as the co-efficient of abc; 3a the co-efficient of be; or 3ab the co-efficient of c.

18. A simple quantity is either a single letter or number, or several letters connected together without the signs + or Thus a, ab, abd, and 8b, are each of them simple quan

-.

tities.

19. A compound quantity consists of a number of simple quantities connected by the sign + or -. Thus a + b, d-y, b-d+3h, are each compound quantities. The members of which each is composed are called terms. 20. A simple term is called a monomial; thus, a, b, -care monomials. If there are two terms in a compound quantity, it is called a binomial: thus a + b and a-b are binomials. The latter term (a - b) is also called a residual quantity, because it expresses the difference of two quantities, or the remainder after one is taken from the other. A compound quantity, consisting of three terms, is sometimes called a trinomial; one of four. terms, a quadrinomial. A quantity consisting of several terms is, however, generally called a polynomial. 21. When the several members of a compound quantity are to be subjected to the same operation, they are connected by a line called a vinculum (————), or by a parenthesis (). Thus a-be, or a −(b+c), shows that the sum of b and c is to be subtracted from a. But a-b+c signifies that b is to be subtracted from a, and c is to be added to the result.

22. A single letter, or a number of letters, representing any quantities with their relations, is called an algebraic expression or formula. Thus a+b+ 3d is an algebraic expression.

23. Multiplication is usually denoted by two oblique lines crossing each other, thus : hence, a x b is a multiplied into b; and 6 x 3 is 6 times 3, or 6 multiplied into 3. Sometimes a point is used to indicate multiplication: thus, a.b is the same as axb. But the sign of multiplication is more commonly omitted between simple quantities, and the letters are conrected together in the form of a word or syllable: thus, ab is the same as a.b or a x b; and bede is the same as bx c x dx e. When a compound quantity is to be multiplied, a riculum or parenthesis is used, as in the case of subtraction. Thus the sum of a and b multiplied into the sum of c and d, is a + bx c + d, or (a + b) × (c + d). And (6 + 2) × 5 is 8 × 5, cr 40. But 6+ (2 x 5) is 6 + 10, or 16. When the marks of parenthesis are used, the sign of multiplication is frequently omitted. Thus (a + y) (x-y) is (x + y) × (x−y).

24. When two or more quantities are multiplied together, each of them is called a factor. In the product ab, a is a factor, and so is b. In the product a X (a + m), x is one of the factors, and (am) the other. Hence every co-efficient may be considered as a factor (Art. 17). In the product 3y, 3 is a factor as well as y.

READINGS IN GERMAN.-I. INTRODUCTION.

THE object of learning a modern language is not simply, as in the case of one that is no longer spoken, to be able to read and write, but also to speak it. For this purpose it is obviously necessary to acquire a knowledge of the pronunciation as well as the meaning of the words. Hence we are not surprised at having received many applications from the readers of our lessons in German for some instruction on this subject; and it is our intention to publish in the pages of the POPULAR EDUCATOR a series of German Reading Lessons expressly prepared with a view to teach the proper pronunciation of the language. These lessons will be found much better adapted to answer the purpose than any mere collection of rules, however carefully drawn up, and however clearly expressed. In no case is the principle, that example is better than precept, more applicable than in that of pronunciation, a knowledge of which can only be acquired by frequent exemplification. We have no hesitation in saying that the study of our lessons will enable the reader to pronounce German, if not with absolute perfection, at least so as to be easily understood by a native, which is, after all, the only practical object in view.

It is proper to observe, that whilst the lessons are especially intended to teach pronunciation, they are also calculated to be very useful to our readers as exercises in translation, being easy in construction, simple in style, rich in words, and adapted in substance to persons of all ages. A vocabulary will be appended to each lesson, containing an explanation of the meaning of every word in it which has not been previously explained. As few words will be explained more than once in the whole course of the vocabularies, it will be necessary for the learner to study each with great care on its first occurrence, that he may avoid the inconvenience of having to look through preceding pages for the meaning.

DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE INTERLINEAR
PRONUNCIATION.

Pronounce every syllable as in English.

To make a vowel long which otherwise would be short, or

might be either short or long, an apostrophe has been placed immediately after that vowel. Thus vol will rhyme with doll,

but vo'l will rhyme with whole.

To make a vowel short which otherwise would be long, or

might be either long or short, the short sign or breve has been placed over that vowel. Thus mild will rhyme with wild, but mild will rhyme with build. Boot will rhyme with root, but boot will rhyme with put.

ah is long, and sounded as in father; a is short, and sounded as in castle.

ey is to be pronounced as in obey.

ai, representing the short sound of e, when unaccented and terminating a syllable, should be pronounced like ey in the sound, as they have generally the sound of ee when unacnoun survey. The letters cy could not well be used for this

cented.

a

has no corresponding sound in English; plaee the organs as if to pronounce o long; keep them exactly in this position, and then try to pronounce the German e or English a. For the short sound of this vowel place the organs again as if to pronounce o, and without changing, try to pronounce ef, el, eck, em, en, ep, er, ess, et, and you will utter the sound required. The sound which comes nearest to it is the e in her.

has no parallel in English. Pronounce oo in ooze, firmly maintain this position, and try to pronounce long e in eel; the sound uttered will be the one required. For the short sound, place the organs in a similar position, and without changing it try to say if, il, ick, im, in, ip, ir, iss, it. For those who have studied French it may be well to remark that the German i has the same sound as the French u.

ou is always to be sounded as in out, our. has different sounds, according to its position in the word. gh before e and i must be pronounced like g in get, gimlet. In the interlinear pronunciation we shall denote it bych, when it is pronounced like an aspirated k, or like the

ing (wohnen, to dwell, reside, live). Nun, now, well. Picken, to pick. Die, pl. the. Brosamen, pl. scraps. Krume, f. crum.

1. Das Roth kehlchen. Dass rote-keyl-chen.

Ein Rothkehlchen fam in der Strenge des Winters an das Ine rote'-keyl-yen kahm in dair shtreng'-ai dess vin'-ters an dass Fenster eines frommen Landmanns, als ob es hinein gern fen'-ster i'-ness from'men lant-manss, alss op ess gairn hin-ine möchte. Da öffnete der Landmann sein Fenster und nahm moy'-tai. Dah öf-nai-tai dair lant-man zine fen'-ster sont nahm das zutrauliche Thierchen freundlich in seine Wohnung. Nun dass tsoo'-trou-li-ye teer'-yen froint'-liy in zi-nai vo ́-nõðnk. Noon

pickte c8 die Brosamen und Krümchen auf, die von seinem pick'-tai ess dee bro'-zah-men ŏŏnt krü'm'-yen ouf, dee fon zi'-nem Tische fielen. Auch hielten die Kinder des Landmanns bas tish'-shai fee-len. Ouch heel-ten dee kin'-der dess lant'-mauss, dass Aber als nun der Frühling wieder in ah'-ber alss noon dair frü"-link vee'-der in das Land kam und die Gebüsche sich belaubten, da öffnete dass lant kahm õõnt dee gai-büsh'-shai ziý bai-laup'-ten, dah of-nai-tai der Landmann sein Fenster, und der kleine Gast entflog in das dair lant ́-man zine fen ́-ster, dont dair kli'-nai gast ent-flo'ch' in dass

Vöglein lieb und werth. fö'g'-line leep oont veyrt.

nahe Wäldchen, und bauete sein Nest und sang sein fröhliches nah'-hai velt'-yen, dont bou'-ai-tai zine nest ŏŏnt.zank zine fro'-li-yess

Liedchen.

leet'-yen.

Und siehe, als der Winter" wiederkehrte, da fam das Roth ŏŏnt zee'-hai, alss dair vin'-ter vee'-der-keyr-tai, dah kahm dass rote'kehlchen abermals in die Wohnung des Landmanns und keyl-yen ah'-ber-mahlss in dee vo'-noonk dess lant'-mauss ŏŏnt hatte sein Weibchen mitgebracht. Der Landmann aber sammt hat-tai zine vipe'-yen mit'-gai-bracht.

Dair lant-man ah'-ber zamt seinen Kindern freuten sich sehr, als sie die beiden Thierchen 'sahen, zi'-nen kin'-dern froi'-ten ziý zeyr, alss zeo dee bi-den teer'-yen zah'-hen, klaren Aeuglein wie sie aus den zutraulich umherschauten; vee zee ouss dain klah'-ren oig'-line tsoo'-trou-liy ŏom-heyr'-shou ́-ten; und die Kinder sagten: Die Vögelchen sehen uns an, als ob sont dee kin'-der zahdh'-ten: Dee fö"-ghel-yen zey'-hen õõnss an, alss op fie etwas sagen wollten. zee et'-vass zah'-ghen vol'-ten.

Da antwortete der Vater: Wenn sie reden könnten, so Dah ant'-vor-tai-tai dair fah'-ter: Ven zee rey'-den kön'-ten, zo'

würden sie sagen: Freundliches Zutrauen erwecket vür'-den zee zah-ghen: Froint-i-yes tsoo'-trou-en err-veck'-et Zutrauen, und Liebe erzeuget Gegenliebe! tsoo'-trou-en, dont lee'-bai err-tsoi'-ghet ghey'-ghen-lee-bai!

Dic, relative pronoun pl. which. Von, of, from. Tisch, m. table. Fallen, to fall. Auch, also. Kind, n. child. Vogel, m. bird (-lein, sign of diminutives). Lieb halten, to love. Werth halten, to esteem, cherish (halten, to hold). Aber, but.

Der, nom. m. the. Frühling, m. spring. Wieter,again,prefixre. Gebüsch, n. collective bushes,

noun,

copse (ge-, a prefix, showing a mass of things; Busch, m. bush).

ich, himself, herself, itself, themselves. Belauben, to cover with foliage (Laub, foliage).

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN.

EXERCISE 60 (Vol. I., page 302).

1. These great beautiful houses are all to let. 2. The one house is to let, the other to sell. 3. It is not to be believed that he has forsaken us. 4. This book is to be had of Mr. Westermann in Brunswick. 5. Not one single star was to be seen in the whole heavens. 6. How is this long word to be pronounced? 7. Where are the best boots, shoes, and over-shoes to be found? 8. The best, which I have seen, are to be found at my old neighbour N's. 9. The fire burnt so rapidly that nothing was to be saved in the castle. 10. Nothing valuable is to be gained without trouble. 11. This high rock is not to be climbed. 12. This old house is to be repaired no more. 13. Through this forest one cannot get. 14. He is neither to be convinced nor to be persuaded. 15. His behaviour is not at all to be pardoned. 16. What is your friend's name? 17. He is called James. 18. How is this called in German? 19. It is called Brille (spectacles). 20. The more perfect a work of art is, that is, the more parts it has, and the more all these parts contribute to the purpose, the more beautiful it is. EXERCISE 61 (Vol. I., page 302).

1. Die Aussprache fremder Wörter ist nur durch Uebung zu erlernen. 2. Nichts ist ohne Mühe zu erlernen. 3. Vollkommene Glückseligkeit ist in dieser Welt nicht zu finden. 4. Sie sprechen so schnell, daß Sie nicht zu verstehen sind. 5. Gesundheit ist mit Geld nicht zu erkaufen. 6. Die Ruhe der Statt war durch strenge Befehle nicht herzustellen. 7. Wie nennen Sie diese Blumen? 8. Sie werden Tulpen genannt. 9. Die klugen Schüler sind zu loben. 10. Der Unterschied zwischen kaufen und verkaufen muß den Schülern zu dieser Zeit bekannt sein. 11. Dieses Buch ist bei dem Buchhändler C. in London zu haben. 12. Gin werthvolles Kunstwerk kann nicht ohne viel Mühe gemacht werden. 13. Die Rose und tas Veilchen werten wegen ihres Wohlgeruchs geschäßt, die Tulpe wegen des Glanzes ihrer Farben. 14. Jakob geht morgen nach Braunschweig. 15. Die Himmel verkündigen die Herrlichkeit Gottes.

EXERCISE 62 (Vol. I., page 302).

2. He is ill, he can go no1. Where are you sending your servant ? where. 3. Do you copy this letter? 4. I have already copied it. 5. Do you believe that the bookbinder sends me back my books? 6. Has your sister received the flowers which I have bought for her? 7. The gardener comes to-morrow, and will bring them with him. 8. When doas John go to school? 9. He goes there to-morrow, and little

Henry goes too. 10. Where are the new tables which the joiner has made ? 11. Have you seen the beautiful carriage, in which Mr. G. has taken his wife and children away? 12. When does your brother come back from Paris? 13. He has already been back these five days. 14. Do you wish to take a walk? 15. No, I have already taken a walk round the town.

EXERCISE 63 (Vol. I., page 302).

1. Er war im Begriffe uns mitzutheilen, was er geschrieben hatte, aber er wurde durch die Ankunft eines Fremten unterbrochen. 2. Wann ist Ihr Fräulein Schwester nach Frankreich abgereist? 3. Sie ist vorgestern abgereift. 4. Hat fie die Heine Maria mitgenommen? 5. Es wirt sehr schwer sein, frin Betragen mit den Grundsäßen, zu welchen er sich bekennt, übereinstim mend zu machen. 6. Ihr, die ihr eure Freunde verlassen habt, seid keines Bertrauens würtig. 7. Gute Frauen slud die reizentste Klasse der Gesell. schaft, sie trösten uns, erheben unser Gemüth, begründen unser Glück, und baben keine Lafter, als die, welche wir ihnen mittheilen.

EXERCISE 64 (Vol. I., page 303).

1. We are growing older and older, and are sooner at our end than is agreeable to us. 2. It became so dark that we were not able to see our hands before our eyes. 3. At five o'clock it grows dark. 4. Do you rise early in the morning? 5. As soon as it is light, I leave my bed. 6. Shall you still emigrate this year to America ? 7. I intend it, but I do not think anything will come of it. 8. In the year one thousand eight hundred and forty-eight, France became a republic. 2. God said, Let it be, and it was. 10. Is your new grammar already finished? 11. Not yet, but I hope it will be finished in a fortnight at the latest. 12. What will become of me? 13. "It will be a hot day," said an old warrior to his comrades a few hours before the battle. 14. The sun sunk in the sea, and it became night. 15. The sick man on his couch says, with a sigh, "Will it, then, never be day?" and the day-labourer, under the pressure of his work (says), "Will it not soon be night ?" 16. The weather has already become rather cold.

EXERCISE 65 (Vol. I., page 303).

1. Die Gegenwart kennen wir, von der Zukunft wissen wir nichts, und Ehre tem Menschen, der ruhig die Zukunft erwarten kann. 2. Wurte Ihre Semester plöglich krank? 3. Nein, sie fühlte schon acht Tage zuvor heftiges Leefweh. 4. Wollen Sie ein gelehrter Mann werden? 5. Laßt uns nach Hause gehen, ehe es dunkel wird. 6. Die meisten Menschen werten frank burch Vernachlässigung. 7. Mancher wurde ein ganz anderer Mensch, nachtem er eine sorgfältigere Erziehung erhalten hatte. 8. Die meisten Menschen werden Sclaven des Reichthums anstatt Herren desselben. 9. Sobalt es Frühling wirt, belebt die ganze Natur sich wieder.

EXERCISE 66 (Vol. I., page 310).

1. How old is this man? 2. He is not very old. 3. Has he much money? 4. Yes, and he has also many friends and many enemies. 5. Which boy has many apples and pears? 6. One of the peasant's sons has many apples, the other has many pears. 7. The one has much success, the other only grief and anxiety. 8. How much bread has the baker? 9. He has very much bread, but only a little four. 10. This man has little money, but much intelligence. 11. These boots are much too large for me, and the shoes are a little too short for my brother. 12. Will your uncle buy much powder ? 13. He will bay only a little, because he has too little money. 14. Who is that? 15. It is an old friend of the physician. 16. Who has good water? 17. The sailor has some. 18. Shall I have some books to-morrow? 19. You will have some to-day already. 20. Has the peasant much | wheat? 21. He has not much. 22. Has the blacksmith much steel? 23. He has much. 24. Has he many nails? 25. He has many. 3 Who has milk? 27. The peasant has some. 28. Has he very mach? 29. He has enough.

EXERCISE 67 (Vol. I., page 310).

1. Wir müssen vorsichtig in der Wahl desjenigen sein, dem wir wich tige Angelegenheiten anvertrauen. 2. Diejenigen, welche übel von andern terer sind oft schlimmer als rie, deren Fehler sie bloßstellen. 3. Er be Fannte die Religion, deren Ursprung göttlich ist. 4. Dieser Knabe besigt zu riel Stelz und zu wenig Fleiß. 5. Das ist der Mann, durch dessen Hülfe et gerettet wurte. 6. Welches gefiel Ihnen am meisten? Dieses over nes? Keines von Beiten. 7. Sind die zu lieben, deren Laster von Zetermann verabscheut werden? 8. Wie viele Hüte hat jener Knabe? 9. Er hat trei. 10. Wer verkauft hier gutes Brod? 11. Unser Bäcker verfauit sehr gutes Bred.

EXERCISE 68 (Vol. I., page 311). 1. There is very much fruit this year. 2. It is very beautiful weather to-day. 3. There are more poor people than rich. 4. It is really a pleasure to take a walk this morning. 5. Are there also ravenous beasts in Germany? 6. There are still many wolves in the mountains. 7. The hostile army is on its return (retreat). 8. Is there anything more beautiful than the rising of the sun? 9. It has snowed the whole

11. No,

day. 10. Are you going with me this afternoon upon the ice? it thaws already, and the ice may easily break in. 12. When it dawns I shall call for you for a walk. 13. It has snowed the whole of the day. 14. Does it rain already? 15. No, but it will soon begin to rain. 16. How long has it rained? 17. It rained till four o'clock. 18. Does it thunder? 19. Yes, it thunders and lightens, and I fear it will also hail. 20. Where were you when it snowed? 21. I took shelter in St. George's Chapel; for it not only snowed, but stormed and hailed. 22. I only tell you what I have heard.

EXERCISE 69 (Vol. I., page 311).

1. Es schien diesen Morgen als ob es regnen wollte, aber nun fängt das Wetter an schön zu werden. 2. Es ereignete sich, daß es regnete, gerate als die Schlacht begann; und es konnerte und hagelte den ganzen Tag hindurch. 3. Es hat diesen Winter geregnet, gehagelt, geschneit und gefroren. 4. So lange es regnet, kann ich nicht abreisen. 5. Es scheint, taß viele Fremde in diesem Gasthofe sind. 6. Es giebt viele Dinge, die wir nicht erklären können. 7. Sobald es tagt, werde ich bei Ihnen vorsprechen, um zu gehen und den Aufgang der Sonne zu sehen. 8. Gibt es wohl etwas Etleres, als einem Feinte vergeben? 9. Wollen Sie morgen mit mir auf das Eis gehen? 10. Nein, ich fürchte, daß es schon thaut, und es würde gefährlich sein, es zu wagen. 11. Sebald der Wind sich legt, wird es regnen. 12. In jeder Gesellschaft gibt es mehr Dummköpfe als Bösewichte, und mehr Unwissente als Gelehrte.

EXERCISE 70 (Vol. I., page 323).

1. All exhalations and vapours which continually rise from the earth, collect in the atmosphere, and when they unite, rain, snow, mist, wind, and every other change of air results from them. 2. He who accustoms himself to work in his youth need not suffer want in his old age. 3. The Ludwig street in Munich is distinguished by a row of splendid. palaces. 4. Those persons who praise themselves very often make themselves ridiculous. 5. The sons of Charles the Great were obliged to practise themselves in arms, in riding, and in swimming. 6. The daring diver ventures to plunge himself in the roaring whirlpool. 7. The envious (man) injures himself more than others. 8. Frederick the Great often stopped at Potsdam, in the palace of Sanssouci. 10. The believer in affliction appears Goodness is its own reward. 11. The as a rock in the sea when the ocean billows rage about him. great blue arch which we call heaven, is an immeasurable space, in which the earth, sun, moon, and innumerable stars move. 12. The force with which the muscles contract and extend is very great.

9.

13. Many people addict themselves so passionately to bad habits, that they consider them necessities of nature. 14. A child in the arms of its good parents is not afraid; so the man who has confidence in God. 15. The army collected together, and moved toward the river. 16. The enemy encamped around the town. 17. He distinguished himself from all others by his brave behaviour. 18. He is afraid of nobody. 19. He criticises my neighbour's words.

EXERCISE 71 (Vol. I., page 323).

2. Die

1. Der Jüngling grimt sich über den Verlust seiner Eltern. Mutter war erfreut, als der Brief von meiner Schwester ihr vorgelesen wurde. 3. Sie tröstete sich mit dem Gedanken, daß sie bald ankommen würde. 4. Werten Sie lange in Italien verweilen? Nein, es ist nicht mein Wille. 5. Ein ehrlicher Mann fürchtet nichts. 6. Die Slaven haben sich gegen die östreichische Regierung empört. 7. Die englischen Truppen zeichneten sich durch ihre Tapferkeit in der Schlacht bei Waterloo aus. 8. Derjenige, welcher sich über das Unglück eines Antern freut, verdient nicht ten Beifall der Tugendhaften. 9. Derjenige, welcher sich ärgert, wenn ein Anderer in seiner Gegenwart gelobt wire, ist ein Mensch, welcher nicht verdient, geliebt und geehrt zu werden. 10. Derjenige, welcher sich freut, wenn sein Nachbar geliebt wird, ist ein gutmüthiger Mensch.

RECREATIVE NATURAL HISTORY.

THE CRAB.

THE word crab requires no definition, and the animal thus named is probably known to every reader. Whether the term be derived by abbreviation from the Latin carabus (crabus, crab), or from a Saxon root signifying to bite or grip, is matter of debate. The latter origin is, however, the more probable. In this case one primary meaning can be traced through crab, the crustacean; crab, the apple, from its biting taste; and crab, a machine for lifting or gripping heavy weights. But this short word conveys little notion of the animal's structure, and is therefore of no scientific value. What, then, does the reader say to the name Decapod, brachyurous crustacean ? * To many this long

• Decapod, ten-footed; brachyurous, short-tailed.

name will at once suggest the peculiar structure of the crab; others may feel inclined to regard it as pedantic. But as the meaning of the designation is simply this, that the crab is a crustacean with a short tail and ten feet, it is an exact description of the animal.

Our notices must be limited to a few only of the more remarkable species, their singular habits and peculiar structure. The spider-crabs, so named from the great length of their legs, are found on many parts of the south, west, and east coasts of England. The large reddish, spine-backed spider-crab of Cornwall (Maia squinado) has sometimes the front legs fifteen inches long. Though little prized as food, and contemptuously

these fights, claws, limbs, and shells are torn, wrenched, and cracked, with a fury and energy to which a battle between two game-cocks is but play. When a large crab has seized a smaller, he tears open the shell, and scoops out the flesh of his living captive. Perhaps, while the conqueror is enjoying his feast, a still stronger crab will tear open the body of the victor, and feed upon him. The most singular fact is, that a crab, while thus being eaten, will actually continue to feed on the victim seized by himself. Here appears a total insensibility to suffering. A crab has been known to lose seven of its limbs in a fight, and immediately after to begin eating a captured mollusk, as if nothing particular had happened. These furious battles are probably

called "spiders" by the fishermen, this crustacean was highly honoured by the ancient Greeks, who deemed it a "rational animal," used it as a symbol of wisdom, and sculptured it on the statue of "Diana of the Ephesians." Still more was this genus honoured by receiving the name Maia, that of the mother of Mercury; and it is probable that the month of May was named from the same root. Thus the spine-backed spider-crab is not without a history.

The common edible crabs of the fish-shops (Cancer pagurus), though well known, require some notice. They are found on rocky parts of our coasts, the small animals inhabiting holes in the cliffs, but the larger and more experienced dwelling in deeper waters. When caught and kept alone in an aquarium, one of these crabs may become tame and quite familiar; but if placed with others of its race, a series of desperate battles will soon declare the degree to which the ferocity of the crab may extend. In

not so common when the crabs are in their natural state, as when pent up in a close marine tank.

The small red crab (Carcinus manas) sold by the London costermongers is, of course, to be classed with the edible kind, though grouped with the portunians, or paddling crabs. It is easily found a little beneath the sand when the tide has gone down. One may be kept for several days in moist sand only; and if the captor will give his crab a mussel, he will receive his reward by observing the grave earnestness with which the crustacean scoops out the flesh with its handlike claws. This crab is of a greenish tint when alive; the red colour of those on the stalls arises from the oxidation of the shell when boiled.

The voracity of the common crab renders it an easy prey to the fisherman, who has only to bait his wicker traps, called "crab-pots," or stalkers," with useless or decayed fish, and

sink them in a suitable place, when the eager crustaceans will soon enter. Readers have, doubtless, noticed in the shops huge specimens of the edible crab; these fellows, brought up from deep waters, have sometimes weighed twelve pounds each. Perhaps the most remarkable of our British crustaceans is the hermit crab (Pagurus Bernhardus). There is no mistaking this red and yellow tinted crab, as he runs along the sand, dragging with him the whelk or other shell which he has appropriated for his house. Most readers are aware that this family of crabs is without any shell on the hinder part of the body. Were this all, we might simply note the fact as a remarkable deviation from the usual structure of crustaceans. We should also infer that the animal's habits were suited to its peculiar formation, and that no sense of a deficiency in its covering would be felt by the creature. But this is not so; the crab does feel the absence of its protection, and remedies the want by seizing on the shells of other animals, and inserting the unde

When the hermit grows too large for the shell first appropriated, another is sought, and, after repeated trials, is fitted to the body. Thus new homes are provided as required.

Of course we need not warn any reader not to place these crabs in an aquarium containing other marine creatures; the hermits will kill them all. If, however, a tank can be arranged for hermits only, the peace will probably be kept for some time, they having a wholesome respect for each other's pugnacity, and acting on the international principle, "If you wish peace, be ready for war."

The name "hermit " seems to have been given by those who fancied a resemblance between each crab in its shell and a lonely hermit in his cell. In the West Indies these crustaceans are called "soldiers," their thorax case suggesting the notion of a warrior's breastplate.

The habits of the pea crab (Pinnotheres pisum) are not less remarkable than those of the hermits, and demand a few sen

fended part of its body into the appropriated asylum. If the crab finds the empty shell of a whelk, or any other of a suitable size and shape, the naked part of its body is so firmly fixed in the novel home that it is easily drawn after the animal. If no empty shell can be found, then the fierce crab seizes a whelk, eats the victim, and appropriates its house. When one of these hermits is seen, the fore part of the body is alone visible, the rest being concealed in the cleverly adapted home. To enable the crab thus to crouch into a shell it was necessary to deprive it almost entirely of the two hinder pairs of legs, which are therefore only rudimentary limbs. The observer may wish to have a complete view of so strange a crustacean. Let him be cautious; the hermit is sharp in temper, and a pinch from its mandibles will not be soon forgotten. See how bravely the creature defends its house! Shrinking back as far as possible, it draws in the small claw, bars the entrance with the large one, and ho'ds this in readiness to seize the enemy. Should the hermit at last be gripped without damage to fingers, it is even then a question whether its body will not be torn asunder in the endeavour to drag it out. This tenacity of hold arises from a peculiar grasping apparatus on the tail.

tences. These pinnotherians are sometimes not above one-tenth of an inch long, are of a pale-red colour, and inhabit the shells of living mussels. The common edible mussel may often be found with one of these small pea crabs dwelling very comfortably inside the shell, without apparently giving any annoyance to the mussel. The softness of their carapace compels these small crustaceans to find so strange a shelter in the homes of living mollusks. What service the crab renders the mussel is debated, though the old naturalists were very clear upon the matter, holding that the tenant gave warning to its protector of approaching foes, the mussel then closed its shell, and both were safe. "Thus," remarks one writer, "the little crab pays a good rent, by saving the life of his landlady." Sometimes a whole family of pea crabs will be found thus living with their guardian in the utmost harmony, Some naturalists, however, hint that the mussel would gladly eject the intruders if it were possible. Cockles, oysters, and other mollusks, are also patronised by the pea crabs.

* Mussel protectors; so named from the notion that these small crabs guarded the pinna, or mussel, from the cuttle-fish.