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Things Real; or English History from the accession of Henry VIII. to the death of William III., and that part of English Law which relates to Persons and Things Personal. These are the subjects most commonly in use (Lingard's "History of England" and Stephen's "Blackstone" being the usual text-books), but some variations are allowed. The honour examinations extend over a far wider range of subjects.

In the School of Natural Science the pass subjects consist of Mechanical Philosophy, Chemistry, and Physiology. Every candidate, to obtain the Testamur, must satisfy the examiners in two out of these three branches of Natural Science, as well as in some one of the particular sciences dependent on Mechanical Philosophy, which includes Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Sound, Light, Heat, Electricity, and Magnetism. The course for honour-students is based on the above subjects, but requires a far more extensive knowledge than the pass-examination.

In each of these schools a Testamur is awarded to pass-men and class-men alike; the names of the class-men being printed alphabetically in four classes; the names of those who only satisfy the examiners without taking honours being added in a separate division, also alphabetically arranged.

For the degree of M.A. no examination is required. For degrees in Divinity, Law, Medicine, and Music, special exercises must be performed, examinations passed, and requirements satisfied, particulars of which can be obtained from the Professors of the respective faculties, and from the Registrar of the University, E. W. Rowden, Esq., D.C.L., of New College, whose official residence is at the Old Clarendon in Broad Street, and whose kindness and courtesy in imparting information can but be gratefully acknowledged by the writer of this sketch of the University and its curriculum.

II. PRIVATE HALLS.

There are two other ways of going through the University of Oxford than by entering it as an unattached student. The first of these is by matriculating at a private hall, of which societies there are now two, known as Charsley's Hall and Benson's Hall, so named, according to the statute De Aulis Privatis, after the licensed masters who preside over themnamely, Mr. W. H. Charsley, M.A., and the Rev. R. M. Benson, M.A., both members of Christ Church. Two other private halls have existed since the statute above referred to was passed, but both were short-lived, and Mr. Charsley is the first master who has achieved any success as the head of such an institution. His hall, however, is the resort of a class of pupils who have, for the most part, larger means than those who enter the University avowedly as frugal students, the terms being somewhat high. It is popular, and has many members on its books. Mr. Benson's hall is opened for the benefit of those who intend not only to live in a strictly economical manner, but to conform to a course of study and discipline more ascetic than that of the normal collegiate life. There are also several students on the books of this hall.

III. COLLEGIATE LIFE.

It is not to be thought that, because the writer of these pages has thrown the bulk of the matter relating to the University course into the portion assigned to instructions for young men wishing to matriculate as unattached students, he, on that account, undervalues the collegiate system, or would recommend any youths intending to go through the University to do so as anattached students, if they can procure the means to do so as members of a college or hall. The collegiate system and life possess advantages, privileges, and safeguards, both educational and social, which the unattached student is without; and will no doubt continue to flourish, a strong support and help to the younger system which has just been superadded in the University. There are in the University nineteen colleges and five halls, the chief difference between these respective sets of societies being that the colleges are corporate bodies, each endowed to support a body of Fellows, who elect their own Warden, Provost, Rector, Master, President, or Principal; while the halls have no such endowment, and their Principals, with one exception, are appointed by the Chancellor of the University. In the colleges the tutors are mostly appointed by the Head out of the body of Fellows; in the halls the Principals are responsible for the tuition, and for the most part undertake the chief portion of it themselves, assisted by competent lecturers or assistanttutors appointed by themselves. With these differences in

their constitution, the education, discipline, and duties of the students are the same in both colleges and halls; they lead a cœnobitic life; dinner is served daily in the common hall; and divine service celebrated morning and evening in the chapel.

But for all students without exception-collegiate, aularian, and unattached-the duties, discipline, examinations, and other exercises for degrees, and responsibility to the University as a body, are identical. The usual chapel rule in the colleges and halls is to attend once each week-day (in the morning as a rule), and twice on Sunday. In some few colleges week-day attendance at chapel has been dispensed with for students who prefer to answer a "roll-call" at an early hour to show that they are not spending their time inactively. The colleges are as follow:

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In most of the colleges both scholarships and fellowships are now open to public competition, the latter being the more free of the two from local restrictions. In New College, Christ Church, and St. John's, a strong connection still subsists between these societies respectively and the schools of Winchester, Westminster, and Merchant Taylors, in a corresponding order. Exeter has still a connection with Devonshire; Queen's with the North of England; Brasenose with Hereford, Marlborough, and Manchester, and (by its rich Hulmeian foundation) with certain other parts of Lancashire; Jesus College with Wales; Pembroke with Abingdon School and the Channel Islands; and Worcester with certain parts of Worcestershire; but a large number of scholarships and exhibitions are now open to the most unrestricted competition. Few scholarships are now worth less than £80 per annum; many as much as and more than £100; and any economical student who can add £20 or £30 a-year to the income of a scholarship, can go through the University in comfort and respectability. Scholars are usually expected to be candidates for honours; and any one who has the ability to procure election to a scholarship can only be prevented from offering himself for honours either by failing health or idleness. For the former cause, allowance will be readily made. The latter, or failure in the schools (vulgo, plucking), may terminate the tenure of a scholarship. Several of the halls have scholarships or exhibitions as helps to economical men ; but they are, for the most part, of less value than in the colleges. It must also be mentioned that of the five halls, three-viz., St. Mary Hall, St. Alban Hall, and St. Edmund Hall-offer special advantages to students who are resolutely determined to live At the same time every reaaccording to a rule of economy. sonable comfort, joined to the social advantages of the cœnobitic life, is secured by membership of one of these societies. But whatever temptations to extravagance the normal collegiate life may present, any one can, with entire comfort, bring his annual battel bills-including room-rent, tuition, kitchen and buttery expenses, i.e., all necessary food and drink (except wine and luxuries), coal, and washing-within £90; while in some of the halls stricter frugality has reduced this sum to £60. It is hoped that these few facts may serve to prove that Oxford has not yet come to the condition of being no longer a place for "the poor scholar."

LESSONS IN BOTANY.-XXXI. SECTION LXXV.-AURANTIACEE, OR CITRON-WORTS. Characteristics: Calyx free, monosepalous; petals hypogynous, free, or almost free, in number equal to the parts of the calyx, with which they are alternate; imbricated in aestivation; stamens in number double or in multiples of the number of the petals,

monadelphous or polyadelphous; filaments ordinarily flat and uni-serial; style simple; stigma capitular; berry with thick rind and pulpy endocarp; seeds provided with a raphe, and frequently containing numerous embryos; embryo dicotyledonous, exalbuminous, straight; radicle superior.

The Aurantiaceae are for the most part natives of tropical Asia, but they are now distributed over all parts of the globe where the temperature is sufficiently high to be congenial to their culture. Their leaves are alternate, without stipules, often growing at the extremity of a flattened petiole, solitary or in corymbs. The bark, the leaves, calyx, petals, filaments, and epicarp, are all supplied with vesicles containing volatile oil.

This beautiful family is, chemically, remarkable for its volatile oil and aromatic bitter constituents, and its free acids (principally malic and citric). The citron (Citrus) is the principal genus of the family. The orange (Citrus aurantiacum), originally a native of the East Indies, is now cultivated in almost all tropical and warm temperate countries. In France, however, it requires protection during the winter.

ovary in the form of a cup; ovary generally from two to fivecelled, some plants of the genus having as many as ten or twelve cells; style single; ovules one, two, or four in number, attached to axile placenta; fruit succulent or capsular, with loculicidal dehiscence; seeds few in number. The Meliacea are trees or shrubs, natives for the most part of the tropics. They contain acrid and bitter astringent principles, by virtue of which they are tonic and stimulating. The Melia Azederach (Fig. 232) is a tree growing in Persia and Syria, sometimes called the Margosa tree, but which has been naturalised in Mediterranean Europe and North America. It has febrifugal properties.

SECTION LXXVII.-MALPIGHIACEE, OR MALPIGHIADS. Characteristics: Calyx free, five-partite, each division ordinarily furnished with two glands at the base; petals five, either inserted upon the receptacle or upon a hypogynous or sub-perigynous disc; imbricated in æstivation; stamens double in number to that of the petals, sometimes all of them fertile,

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The citron (Citrus medica) is the most useful species of the genus; its berry, sometimes termed the bitter orange, is not edible, but from it are extracted many delicious perfumes, and its pulp makes an excellent confection. It is from the flowers of this species that chemists obtain the essence of neroli. All its various parts are in point of fact more aromatic than similar parts of the orange-tree. The lime (Citrus limetta), and the lemon (Citrus limonum), are all members of the genus Citrus; all yield, from almost every part of their substance, an odorous volatile oil. The celebrated Eau de Cologne is nothing more than a solution of volatile oils extracted from many genera of

Aurantiacea and dissolved in alcohol.

The citron was not introduced into Europe until subsequently to the period of Alexander the Great's Asiatic conquests. It is a native of Persia and Mesopotamia.

SECTION LXXVI.-MELIACEE, OR MELIADS. Characteristics: Leaves usually alternate, simple, or pinnate, and without flowers, hypogynous, and generally symmetrical, arranged either in a panicle, corymb, cyme, or spike; the calyx and corolla having three, four, or five divisions; stamens monadelphous, and twice as many in number as the petals, with sessile anthers; disc hypogynous, and sometimes surrounding the

in other cases partly sterile; filaments ordinarily coherent at their base; ovary composed of three carpels, rarely two, either incorporated with the axis or free at the summit, giving rise to three or two uni-ovulate cells; ovule reflexed, attached to a pendent funiculus ascending by its free extremity; fruit composed of two or three scales, ordinarily samaroidal; seeds inverted, dicotyledonous, exalbuminous, rarely straight, cotyledons ordinarily bent on themselves; radicle superior.

The Malpighiacea are usually trees or shrubs, for the most part covered with hairs, which sometimes degenerate into prickles, though not invariably. The leaves are ordinarily opposite, single, devoid of stipules. Inflorescence, a cyme or corymb. This order takes its name from the Malpighia, or Barbadoes cherry, so called after Professor Malpighi of Pisa. This plant is nearly allied to the Galphimia, another of the same family, whose name, as the reader may see, is the word 'Malpighia" transposed.

SECTION LXXVIII.-ACERACEE, OR MAPLES. Characteristics: Calyx free, with four or five divisions, cadu ceous; petals four or five, alternate with the sepals, inserted upon a hypogynous disc; æstivation imbricate; stamens four to twelve, ordinarily eight; ovary free, composed of two carpels,

bilocular and perpendicularly compressed at the line of junction; ovules double in each cell, pendent or curved; fruit samaroidal; seed dicotyledonous, exalbuminous, cotyledons irregularly contorted; radicle descending.

The Aceraceae are trees with opposite petiolate ex-stipulate leaves, having regular flowers arranged in cymes or corymbs. They all possess a saccharine, limpid, or lactiferous juice, which flows from the plant after incision. One species, Acer saccharinum, or sugar maple, is so rich in sugar that considerable quantities are extracted in Canada and other parts of North America. The

sugar is identical with that obtained from the cane, but it has a certain flavour which renders it less palatable than the canesugar.

the horse-chestnut, which is used in Switzerland for feeding sheep. The burdock or Nephelium, and the Sapindus saponaria or Indian soaptree of the West Indies, belong to this family. The seeds

of all the soapworts, especially the last named, contain a saponaceous principle, which in the case of the Sapindus saponaria is turned to account in washing linen in the West Indies.

SECTION LXXX.-HYPERICACEE, OR TUTSANS. Characteristics: Calyx free; sepals four or five, joined together to a variable extent; contorted in æstivation; stamens indefinite, free, monadelphous or polyadelphous; ovary three to five-celled or uni-locular; junction incomplete; ovules numerous, reflexed or curved; fruit capsular or bac

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234. THE PLANE - MAPLE (ACER PLATANOIDES). 235. THE PERFORATED HYPERICUM, OR ST. JOHN'S WORT (HYPERICUM PERFORATUM).

SECTION LXXIX.-SAPINDACEAE, OR SOAPWORTS. Characteristics: Calyx free; petals hypogynous, four or five unequal, free, imbricated; stamens seven or eight inserted upon a fleshy or glandular disc; ovary three-celled, bi-ovulate; ovules curved; capsule coriaceous, frequently by abortion unilocular; seed dicotyledonous, exalbu

minous; stem ligneous; leaves opposite, digitate; flowers arranged in a terminal panicle.

One of the most noticeable of the large trees belonging to this family is the Esculus hippocastanum, or common horse-chesnut. The bark of this tree contains a peculiar febrifugal principle called æsculin. Ia France starch is extracted from the seed of

ciform; seed dicotyledonous, exalbuminous; stem ligneous or herbaceous; leaves opposite or verticillate, simple entire, ordinarily punctuated with pellucid glands; flowers regular, arranged in a panicle or cyme. This family is sometimes called the St. John's wort family; it includes all the St. John's worts, many of which are grown in shrubberies, and are remarkable for

their brilliant yellow blossoms. The Hypericaceae are distributed over the hot and temperate regions of the globe, more especially of the northern hemisphere. All the ligneous species are intertropical.

Almost all contain, in addition to a volatile oil, resinous and balsamic juices which flow abundantly from the ligneous species,

and which in the herbaceous ones may be found in the pellucid
glands with which the leaves are studded. The tutsan
(Androsamum officinale) is a native plant formerly employed in
medicine, but now fallen into desuetude. The Hypericum per-
foratum (Fig. 235) is so called in consequence of the sieve-like
appearance of its leaves, dependent on the number of trans-
parent glandular points scattered over their surfaces.
SECTION LXXXI.-TERNSTRÆMIACEE OR CAMELLIACEÆ.
Characteristics : Leaves alternate, generally ex-stipulate;
sepals and petals of flowers for the most part imbricated in
æstivation; stamens hypogynous, many in number, with adnate
or versatile anthers; ovary superior; styles filiform; seeds
dicotyledonous, exalbuminous, few in number, or solitary, at-
tached to axile placenta.

The most important member of this family is the tea shrub (Thea). The virtues of tea depend on a combination of an astringent with a peculiar nitrogenised principle termed theine, also in part to a volatile oil.

Two centuries have not yet elapsed since tea was first introduced to Europe as an article of drink. Everybody is aware that two species of tea exist-black and green tea. Both are produced by the same plant, and the difference between the two results from peculiarities of manufacture. Several attempts have been made to naturalise the tea shrub in Europe, but invariably without success.

The beautiful camellia (Camellia Japonica), with its white and rose-coloured blossoms and dark, glossy green leaves, is a member of this family. It was originally brought from Japan, and takes its name from a Moravian Jesuit, Camellus.

SECTION LXXXII-TILIACEE, OR LINDEN-BLOOMS. Characteristics: Sepals five, caduceous; valvate in æstivation; petals inserted upon a hypogynous disc, four or five or sometimes absent; imbricate in æstivation, often supplied at their base with a scaly appendage; stamens double in number or a multiple of that of the petals, all fertile, or the external ones sterile, free or polyadelphous at the base; ovary two to tencelled; ovules reflexed; fruit capsular or indehiscent, coriaceous or fleshy; seed dicotyledonous; embryo straight in the axis of a fleshy albumen, sometimes absent; stem ligneous; leaves ordinarily alternate, stipulate; flowers regular, solitary, or in cymes or corymbs.

The Tiliacea for the most part are inhabitants of the tropical zone; they contain an abundant mucilage mingled with astringent and resinous matters. The flower of certain species contains a volatile oil; others possess a fleshy sapid fruit and edible stems: The seeds of most species are oily. The lindens are generally diffused, and in much estimation on account of the beauty of their foliage and the sweet aromatic odour of their flowers. The bark is fibrous, and sometimes turned to account in the manufacture of cordage. The wood, easily worked, is in repute amongst turners and sculptors. The flowers, much sought after by bees, contain an abundance of volatile oil, sugar, mucilage, gum, and tannic acid; their infusion is anti-spasmodic and diuretic. The oily seeds are occasionally employed as a substitute for cocoa. For an example of the leaves and blossoms of the common lime or linden-tree (Tilia Europaa), see Lessons in Drawing, Vol. II., page 9.

SECTION LXXXIII.-BÜTTNERIACEÆ, OR BÜTTNERIADS. Characteristics: Calyx four or five-partite; petals five, hypogynous or absent; æstivation valvate or contorted; stamens in some species equal in number to the petals and opposite to them, in other species double or multiple this number; filaments ordinarily joined in the form of a cupola, tube, or column; ovary four or five to ten-celled, uni-, bi-, or pluri-ovulate; ovules ordinarily ascendant, reflexed; fruit generally a capsule; seed albuminous or exalbuminous; stem ordinarily woody, covered with radiating or bifurcated hairs; leaves alternate, simple, stipulate; flowers regular, arranged in panicles, spikes, or glomerules.

These plants contain an abundant mucilage, to which is generally added a bitter, astringent, extractive matter. The fruit of many species is saccharine; the seeds contain a fixed oil. The most celebrated plant of this natural order is the cocoa-tree (Theobroma cacao, Fig. 236), a South American tree, the cultivation of which, however, has now extended to Africa and Asia.

In the midst of its bitter, pulpy fruit are found the seeds, which, when roasted, constitute the cocoa of commerce.

SECTION LXXXIV.-STERCULIACEÆ, OR STERCULIADS. Characteristics: Calyx four or five-partite; petals hypogynous, five, imbricated in æstivation, often absent; stamens indefinite, monadelphous; anthers two-celled, more or less complete; stem ligneous, covered with radiating hairs; leaves alternate, simple, or digitate; flowers solitary, or in cymes or panicles. Many species of Sterculiaceae are cultivated in Europe. Preeminent amongst these is the baobab, which remains a small shrub in our green-houses, but which, in its own country, grows to an enormous size. The Pachira insignis, a tree of Central America, has digitate leaves, elongated flowers of a bright-red colour, the petals of which are spread out at their summits. The Pachira aquatica, or Carolinea princeps (Fig. 237), is a plant which bears very large and elegant flowers, the petals of which are yellow on their upper surface, green below, ornamented with red filaments and yellow anthers. The Bombax, or silk cotton-tree, so called from the woolly hairs which surround the seed, as in the cotton-plant, is a member of this family.

LESSONS IN

ENGLISH.-XXXII.
LATIN STEMS (continued).

LANGUAGE, in one point of view, is a silent record of human
that the sun rises and sets; that upwards and downwards
errors. If we believed language, we should have still to believe
denote fixed relations, and that heaven is upwards alike at mid-
night and mid-day; that good humour and bad humour are the
offspring of certain liquids (Latin, humor, moisture) in the
material frame; that temper and distemper were the results of
the due or undue mingling of these diverse liquids; that a
jovial man was born under the planet Jupiter (genitive case,
Jovis), the emblem of a jolly god; that a man of saturnine dis-
position owed his dull moroseness to his evil genius, Saturn;
and that a mercurial fellow jumped about and, frisked away
because he had in him too much of the pagan god Mercury, the
swift-footed messenger of Olympus. However, men suffer dis-
asters (from the Latin, dis, not, bad; astrum, a star) without
imputing the blame to their stars; though many are still under
the vulgar delusion that our lot here depends on good luck and
bad luck. Portents and prodigies in the skies and on the
earth are words which show how men were once alarmed by any
unusual phenomenon. Even so late as the reign of Charles II.
Englishmen had faith in portents. During the plague, the
vision of a flaming sword, reaching from Westminster to the
Tower of London, seemed nightly to be present to the excited
fancy of many of the residents in the metropolis, like the
meteor-sword that hung over Jerusalem during the siege. The
appearance of a comet some months before had caused super-
stitious feelings of alarm in the weak-minded, and by such
persons it was regarded with scarcely less terror than that with
which the Anglo-Saxons had beheld the comet which visited
our hemisphere in the year 1066, on the eve of the Norman
invasion.

However, these false fears and vulgar errors are rapidly disappearing. Lunacy is preserved amongst us in the close embrace of Westminster Hall, but we hence cease to believe that mental alienation is caused by the moon (Latin, luna, moon); and if we still in good Saxon speak of the moon-stricken, we do so as we speak of star-gazers, without ascribing any influence to the heavenly bodies.

One or two additional instances of the depravation of words may be given.

The term officious is used in a bad sense; an officious man is constantly interfering with what does not concern him. But in the root of the word there is nothing questionable or offensive. Officium, in Latin, signifies duty. According to its derivation, an officious man is simply a man who attends to his duty. Bat even so pure a virtue may be carried to excess. Excessive and perverted the attention does become if it is outward rather than inward, more apparent than real-if duty is a pretex or an excuse. A misunderstood sense of duty prompts even the sincere to meddle, and in meddling they become officious. I subjoin two instances: in the first, officious is used in a good I sense; in the second, it is used in a bad sense:

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Levo

Lex (legis)
Liber (libri)
Libellus

Liber

Licet

Lignum
Ligo
Linquo

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lever, elevate.

legal, legislator.

library.

libellous.

liberty, liberal, libertine. illicit.

ligneous, pyrolignous. ligament, oblige, religion. relinquish.

gentle

leni, len

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levity, relief, relieve.

I lift up

lev

a law

leg, legis

a book

libr

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relict.

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Lictus (relictus) left
Liqueo
Lis (litis)
Litera
Locus

Longus

Loqui

to speak

In her behalf that scorns your services."-Shakespeare. Why should the word resentment signify the harbouring of a desire for revenge? Its component parts are very innocuousnamely, the Latin participle re, again; and the Latin verb sentio, I feel. Resentment, considered in its origin, is simply a return of feeling. Are, then, ill feelings more prevalent than good ones, that a return of feeling should be equivalent to retaliation ? That retaliation should involve the bad feeling of revenge is not surprising, since its root is the Latin talio, which calls to mind the lex talionis, the law of repaying like for like“eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot' (Exod. xxi. 24). The idea of revenge was moulded into the term long before it became a part of the English language. Yet, while resentment or a return of feeling is used in a bad sense, recompense or repaying is now used exclusively in a good sense. Scripture, however, these words are used in a strictly judicial Venter (ventris) the belly and juridical sense, thus: "Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord" (Rom. xii. 19). To me belongeth vengeance, and recompense' (Deut. xxxii. 35). Here, vengeance merely means the penal retribution which follows the infraction (or breaking) of the law. To attribute vengeance to God, in the sense of revenge or mere retaliation, is the height of moral absurdity. The word knave meant once no more than lad, nor does its original (knabe), in German, now mean Villain was simply a peasant. A boor was a farmer; a varlet, a servingman; a churl, a strong fellow. Time-server was used two hundred years ago quite as often in an honourable sense as in a dishonourable one. Conceits had once nothing conceited in them.

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long, longi Sloqui, loquy,

loqu, locu

ventri

ludi, lud

lus

lumin

the moon

lun

light

luc

leanness

maci

macul

a spot great wickedly I wish

I turn

magni
male, mal

volen

vert, vers

I entrust or bid mand

man, main

mans

man

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I stay

Mansio

a staying

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marine, maritime.

martial.

mater, matri maternal, matricide.

The word progenitors has for its corresponding Saxon term forefathers; the term ancestors is used in nearly the same sense, only the latter simply points out those who have gone before us, our predecessors; the former includes the idea of descent: they of old were our progenitors, we are their offspring; they were our forefathers, we are their children or descendants.

The word degenerate denotes that which has lost the qualities of the kind (genus, generis) or race.

"The which thing declareth that men which have caste down their minds from the dignity of their nature, are so degenerat, and growen out of kinde, that thei seeme vtterly to be brute beastes."-Caluine (Calvin), "Foure Godlye Sermons."

To graduate is to take a degree or step in learning in one of the universities. On entering a university, a young man is said to matriculate (mater, a mother), because he becomes the child or pupil of the institution, which in regard to knowledge and discipline is his mother. After passing through a course of instruction, he, on proving fit and worthy by examination, takes a degree-that is, by receiving certain tokens, as the privilege of putting after his name B.A. or M.A., which is the same as calling himself, in the one case, Bachelor of Arts, or, in the other case, Master of Arts, he is declared and made known as having made proficiency in a greater or less degree in university learning.

"Invest me with a graduate's gown,

Midst shouts of all beholders,

My head with ample square-cap crown,

And deck with hood my shoulders."-Smart.

Egregious (from e, out of; and grex, a flock or crowd) denotes a person who is out of, that is, does not belong to, the multitude; one who is extraordinary and distinguished. Egregious is generally employed in a bad sense :

"Thus have I adventured to expose the egregious folly, and to unmask the extreme corruption of heart, which assumes the buffoon or the philosopher indifferently, to laugh at misery and death, and make a mockery both of law and religion."-Warburton.

Religion is here given as from ligo, I bind. This seems the best etymology. Viewed in this light, religion is the source of obligation. Religion, placing man in immediate connection

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