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glory.

15. Honour follows distinguished virtue. 16. He promised me that he would return. 17. He has returned. 18. No, he will return to-morrow. 19. Boys support each other. 20. Boys ought to support each other. 21. I pity and shall pity the wretched. 22. Never forget thy own faults. 23. I shall set out within a few days. 24. When wilt thou return? 25. Boys, reverence the aged.

Observe, that in the ablative absolute construction there are

Pater filium complexus est. 6. Filius patris mortem ultus est. 7. Rex præmium pollicitus est. 8. Sorori tuæ regina pollicita estne præmium ? 9. Milites cumulatam gloriam adipisci nitentur. 10. Mane experrecti sunt, et discessere. 11. Bene vitæ officiis functi sunt. 12. Aristoteles et Zeno præceptorum officiis functi sunt. 13. Quando amici tui domum revertent ? 14. Heri domum reverterunt. 15. E patriâ profecti sunt, et nunquam revertent. 16. Pestis hæc hominum 17. Ubi est patria ? 18. Patria mea est mundus. 19. In animis mortalibus sunt semina innata vitiorum. 20. Dux cum hostibus congressus est. 21. Quotiescunque duces Anglici cum hostibus congressi sunt, semper discessere superiores. 22. Optimi cujusque pueri animus maxime parentes suos amat. 23. Boni in salutem animæ nituntur. 24. Lacte pueri et puellæ vescuntur. 25. Discipuli officiis suis functi sunt. 26. O Deus, miserere lapsorum. 27. Succurite pauperibus. 28. Proprium est stultitiæ nulli prodesse.

properly two sentences, and consequently two subjects: for in animis nata est (born).
example, sole oriente, tenebræ diffugiunt; in the words sole oriente
there is a subject, namely, sol; and in tenebræ diffugiunt there
is a subject, namely, tenebræ. The former sentence is incom-
plete, nevertheless there is a subject in it.

Now it is an element in the ablative absolute construction, that the subject of the sentence having the verb is not the same as the subject of the imperfect sentence containing the participle. You may see this fact exemplified and illustrated in these instances:

ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE,

1. Senescente lund, ostre tabescere dicuntur.

The moon waning, oysters are said to waste away. 2. Geryone interempto, Hercules in Italiam venit. Geryon being slain, Hercules came into Italy.

3. Sabinis debellatis, Tarquinius triumphans Romam rediit.

The Sabines being subdued, Tarquin in triumph returned to Rome.

4. Chilo, filio victore Olympiæ, præ gaudio exspiravit. Chilo, his son BEING conqueror at Olympia, died of joy.

5. Apes, aculeo amisso, statim emori existimantur. Bees, their sting being lost, are thought to die at once.

It will be noticed from the fourth of the above examples, that the participle, especially when it would be the participle of the verb to be (which is not found in good Latin authors), is sometimes omitted.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-XXXII.
EXERCISE 114.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. The safety of men depends not only on truth, but also on repu-
tation. 2. The citizens, having made a treaty with the enemies,
enjoyed peace.
3. By reflection, we comprehend God and the divine
mind. 4. We live on milk, flesh, and many other things. 5. Take
care that you do not avenge yourselves on your enemies. 6. The Romans
promised this to the Numidians. 7. The Numidians continued to
harass the Carthaginians by war. 8. The Romans are about to strive.
9. The Romans say that they will strive. 10. The Romans returned
the favour with increase. 11. The Romans promised the Numidians,
if they would continue to harass the Carthaginians by war, that they
would strive to return the favour with increase. 12. No one has lived
too short a time who has performed a work of perfect virtue.
Wise men despise the appearances in a dream. 14. As soon as we
have arisen, we despise the appearances in a dream. 15. Aristotle,
Zeno, and innumerable others, having gone out of their country, never
returned home. 16. There is no plague so detestable, which is not
produced by man against man. 17. I am not born for a corner.
This whole world is my country.
in our nature. 20. Hannibal fought with the Romans in Italy. 21.
Hannibal, having fought with the Romans, always came off conqueror.
22. Hannibal, as often as he fought with the Romans in Italy, came
off conqueror.

LESSONS IN ALGEBRA.-X.

REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS.

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Here, a and 13.

18. 19. The seeds of virtue are inborn

EXERCISE 115.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

1. The mind of every most excellent man chiefly strives after immortal glory. 2. The enemies were wearied by the length of the conflict. 3. The enemies, wearied by the length of the conflict, left the (field of) battle. 4. He acquired virtue. 5. In whatever part of the world a good man is, he will be loved by friends. 6. He who has acquired virtue, in whatever part of the world he is, will be loved by us. 7. Courage is eager for danger. 8. Courage does not reflect on what it may be about to suffer. 9. Courage is eager for danger, and whither it turns, does not think of what it will suffer. 10. Augustus did not suffer himself to be called a lord. reason, others use reason. 12. The soul having escaped, the body is worth nothing. 13. The memory of illustrious men, even when dead, has influence with us. 14. It is worthy of a king to aid the fallen. 15. It is peculiar to folly to perceive the faults of others and to forget 16. We ought to do our best to benefit very many persons. 17. To be angry with those whom we ought to love is wickedness. 18. Friendships, acquaintances, and neighbourhoods contain some pleasure (something of pleasure). 19. We understand our advantages better by being without them, than by enjoying them. 20. What pleasure friendships, acquaintances, and neighbourhoods contain, we understand better by being without them, than by enjoying them. 21. Fresh men always succeeded wearied ones.

11. Some animals are destitute of

its own.

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which are equivalent to and the fractions having a common denominator.

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4. Reduce a, b, and to fractions having a common denominator.

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13. Reduce denominator. 14. Reduce denominator.

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READINGS IN GERMAN.-I X.

10. Die Kose

Dee ro' zai

Malvina stand mit ihrem

Vater ver ciner Lilie, Die

Mal-vee-na shtant mit ee'-rem fah'-ter fore i'-ner lee'--ai, dee

unter einem Rosenstrauch blühete. oon-ter '-nem ro'-zen-shtroud blü"-hai-tai.

Blendent weiß, wie ein

Blen'-dent vice, vee ine ihren offnen duften

Lichtstrahl, erhob die schöne Blume lyt-shtrahl, err-hope' dee sho'-nai bloo'-mai ee'-ren öf-nen dööf -tenden Kelch. Ueber ihr hing eine voll aufgeblühte kräftige den kely. ü"-ber eer hink i'-nai föl ouf"-gai-bla"-tai kref-ti-gai Rose, und warf einen röthlichen Schimmer auf die zarten ro'-zai, dont varrf i'-nen rö't'-ly-yen shim'-mer ouf dee tsahr'-ten Silberblätter der Lilie,

und so floß auch beiter Blumen zil"-ber-blet'-ter dair lee-l-ai, oont zo floss ouch bi'-der bloo'-menduft in einander. dŏŏft in ine-an'-der.

Liebe!

erwiederte

D, welch ein schöner Bund! rief Malvina, unt neigte Oh, velý ine sho'-ner boont! reef Mal-vee'-na, oont ni'y'-tai lächelnd ihr Haupt zu den Blumen. hinab. ley'-yelnt eer houpt tsoo dain bloo'-men hin-ap'. Es ist der Bund der Unschuld und Ess ist dair boont dair õõn'-shöölt õõnt lee'-bai! err-vee'-der-tai der Vater. So standen sie schweigend vor den Blumen. Zo shtan'-den zee shvi'-ghent fore dain bloo'-men. Indeß trat Oskar in den Garten, Malvina's stiller In-dess' traht Oss'-karr in dain garr'-ten, Mal-vee'-nass shtil'-ler Geliebter. Da floß ein Malvina's röthlicher Hauch über gai-leep'-ter. Dah floss ine ro't-ly-yer houch u"-ber Mal-vee'-nass Lilie. Wangen, wie der Rose Glanz über die vang'-eu, vee dair ro'-zai glants ü"-ber dee lee'-l-ai,

dair fah'-ter.

Da sah der Vater sie an und sprach: Nicht wahr, Malvina, Dah zah dair fah'-ter zee an dont shprahch: Niyt vahr, Mal-vee'-na, die Blumen haben cine Sprache und ein Antlig? dee bloo'-men hah'-ben i'-nai shprah'-chai oont ine ant-lits? Für die Unschuld und Liebe! feßte Oskar hinzu. Fü'r dee Ŏon'-shoŏlt oont lee'-bai! zets'-tai Oss'-karr hin-tsoo'.

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Auch dieses Zuckerbrød und andre schöne Sachen ouch dee'-zess tsŏŏk ́-ker-brote ŏŏnt an'-drai shỡ nai zach ́-chen Geb' ich dir, wenn du kommst.

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Was sell ich machen?
Vass zol ly mad-den?

Maus.

mouse.

Kind, folg' mir,

gehe nicht! Kint, föly meer, ghey'-hai nyt! Maus. mouse.

ehrliches Geficht!

Vass virrt zee meer den toon? vely eyr-ly-yess gai-ziyt'!

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Rape, f. cat.
Maus, f. mouse.
Gut sein, to be fond
of.
Gar, entirely.
3u, too.

Rathen, to advise.
Dir (dative), to thee.
Komm doch, do come.

(Doch, emphatic.

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KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN.
EXERCISE 128 (Vol. II., page 341).

1. Did you see this neat little garden ? 2. No, for I admired that pretty cottage. 3. It belongs to two old people, whom I know. 4. What kind of pretty little animals are those? 5. There are a great many young lambkins in the garden. 6. This girl plays with her little brother. 7. Will you give me that little chest? 8. Will you have that one on the little table? 9. Look, what a neat little hat. 10. The little child is delighted with his little kitten and with his gosling. 11. So arrange it that you may be at my house by Saturday morning. 12. Do we make it in such a manner that it is useful for both purposes? 13. He shall so arrange it that he can take his books with him. 14. At all events, I will so arrange it that I shall be with you at ten o'clock. 15. We will so arrange it that we by no means come too late. 16. Tell your brother he should so arrange it that it may be understood by everybody. 17. I hope you will so arrange it that you will arrive by the last steamboat. 18. A prophet is nowhere less esteemed than in his native country and in his house. 19. His voice has great influence in the council. 20. What will you bet that in twenty years the greater part of Europe is republican? 21. The inclination to vice is much stronger in us than to virtue. 22. The recognition of our performances is a powerful impulse to industry. 23. The business of his manufactores increases from year to year. 24. He lifted up his eyes. 25. He jumped for joy, and clapped his hands. 26. The children were jumping up.

LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE.-XVI.

RAILWAY ARCHITECTURE.-II.

THE necessity that railways should frequently be thrown across rivers and streams has given rise to the highest displays of constructive skill in railway architecture. The bridges formed for this purpose present an infinite variety of detail, but the most important may be classified as suspension, tubular, and lattice bridges, in all of which iron is the principal material employed. Brickwork and masonry, except in the piers and abutments, are unsuited to bear the violent strain produced by railway traffic. To construct a substantial railway bridge of such material over a stream of more than the smallest proportions, the piers would have to be so closely set together as seriously to impede the navigation. This difficulty was removed by the use of iron girders or beams of various forms, which we shall presently describe; and by these means it was found possible to give a very wide span to the arches, with perfect safety to the bridge.

Iron arches were employed for bridges before the introduction of railways-for example, in the very fine bridge over the Thames at Southwark, which was completed in 1819. In their adaptation to railway architecture, cast-iron was the material at first employed, but this was known to be unsafe for arches of any considerable span. Cast-iron was well enough calculated to act as a support for the traffic, but unfitted to sustain the thrust and vibration produced by the passage of trains over an arch or span of large dimensions. A method of trussing the cast-iron girders with wrought-iron bars was then introduced, the tensile power of the wrought-iron partly removing the defect produced by the rigidity of the other material. But the failure weh of one of these trussed girder bridges, with spans of nearly 100 Oh vey! feet, on the Chester and Holyhead Railway, in 1847, shook the faith of engineers in the principle, and the use of wrought-iron alone then became general.

To return to our classification of iron railway bridges, we have first to mention the suspension bridge. Structures of this kind are usually built in the following manner. A massive tower of masonry is erected on each side of the stream, these towers being termed the abutments. Over the tops of the towers are passed chains formed of bars of iron, the ends of which chains are sunk to a great depth in the ground, and firmly embedded therein. From these chains iron rods are hung, to support the roadway which passes from tower to tower. Among the good examples of ordinary suspension bridges may be mentioned that at Hammersmith, on the Thames; Hungerford Bridge, now removed to Clifton; and the bridge of this kind across the Menai Straits.

In the earlier days of railway construction, this form of bridge was not considered suitable for railway traffic. The passage of a train over such a bridge would depress the chain and roadway at either end, raising it at the centre, and so

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This is a form peculiar to railway architecture, the great engineer who designed the first having before him no previous strueture similar in kind-although applied to other purposes, as in the case of the suspension bridges-to suggest the idea and guide him in carrying it out. The first tubular bridge was that thrown by Mr. Robert Stephenson across the Menai Strait, not far from the suspension bridge to which we have before alluded. It was a necessary condition, imposed by the Admiralty, that the central arches of a bridge across this strait should be of more than 400 feet span, and 100 feet above the surface of the water at the highest tide, to preserve the freedom of the navigation. In studying the problem of how to accomplish this end with the utmost security, Mr. Stephenson determined, after repeated experiments, to adopt a tubular form for his girders, and to make his bridge, so to speak, a tunnel suspended in the air. A further series of experiments convinced him that a rectangular tube was the most suitable for the purpose, possessing far greater

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endanger the security of the entire fabric. But this tendency was counteracted by various devices to stiffen the roadway; and a great engineering triumph was achieved when, in 1848, a railway suspension bridge, spanning a chasm of 800 feet, was built over the St. Lawrence below the falls of Niagara. In this bridge wire cables are made to support a rectangular tube, which carries both an upper and a lower roadway, the former for the railway traffic, and the lower for that of vehicles and foot passengers. A representation of this very remarkable structure is given in one or our engravings.

Another kind of suspension bridge is occasionally employed for railway purposes. In this form the roadway is supported by chains and rods which hang from wrought-iron tubes, these tubes passing from tower to tower or from pier to pier, instead of the chains before mentioned. The great railway bridges at Chepstow and Saltash are formed in this manner. The method of their construction will be understood by a reference to our illustration of the first-named example, on the South Wales Railway.

We come now to the second classification of iron railway bridges-namely, those constructed on the tubular principle.

strength than tubes either cylindrical or elliptical in form. His idea, as finally resolved on and carried out, was, therefore, that of a long tube, in section an oblong square, made of plates of cast-iron closely riveted together, the chief weight and supporting power of the material being massed in a cellular form at the top and bottom of the structure. Two million rivets were employed throughout the tube. These rivets, when brought to the works, were formed with only one end flattened, holes being punched in the plates to receive them. Each rivet, before being fixed in position, was made red-hot in a furnace, then taken up by pincers and inserted in its place, when the unflattened end of the hot metal was hammered on the inside until another head was formed, and the plates were thus securely bound together.

A

The Britannia Tubular Bridge, when completed, consisted of four spans over the Strait, the two central spans 460 feet each in length, and the two at the sides half those dimensions. representation of this structure is given in our illustrations. An immense bridge of the same character was afterwards erected across the St. Lawrence at Montreal. It consists of a tube more than 6,500 feet long, divided into twenty-five spans, the

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A good example of the lattice-girder bridge is seen in that of the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway over the Thames at Blackfriars, the girders in this case resting on columns of iron, which are set on stone foundations. Railway bridges of recent construction are almost all of this form. The riveting is carried out on the same principle and to the same extent as in the case of the Britannia Bridge, and the same amount of strength which is there afforded by the cellular arrangement of material above and below, is given in the lattice bridges by ironbeams which, at frequent intervals, cross the principal girders, both at top and bottom, at right angles.

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BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE ACROSS THE MENAI STRAIT.

or rods of iron, which cross each other diagonally. By this means, in the first place, a great saving is effected in the material employed; next, every portion of that material can

The use of iron girders has greatly

facilitated the construction of what are known as skew bridges, i.e., bridges the line of which runs askew or obliquely to that of the stream. The peculiar formation which it was

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