There was a time when earth's blest race

Such holy ardour knew;

Such perfect love, such heavenly grace
Within their bosoms grew,

That forms of glory oft were seen
Haunting the grove and shady green;

While Summer smiled a softer bue;
And those bright children, Love Divine!
Who bowed before Thy hallowed shrine,
With angels consort knew.

Now earth-born care hath spread around
A soul-depressing sway;

And Mammon everywhere hath found
Slaves willing to obey.

And oft doth Superstition gloom
O'er the dark portals of the tomb,

Where Thou wert wont to smile supreme, Foreshadowing to the wearied eyes

Visions of opening Paradise,

Lit with ethereal gleam.

།, · ་|

HISTORIC SKETCHES.-XXXIV.

THE PAPACY.

TIME was when there was no Pope of Rome, even though Christianity had been established in the world's capital since many years. Time was when, though there was a Pope, or Father, or Bishop of Rome, there was no pontiff king; when the See of St. Peter, as it has been called, was ruled in spiritual matters by men who came up-and more than came up-to the standard of qualifications set by St. Paul for those who would assume the office of bishop; men who administered to their brethren in spiritual things humbly, and with an ever-present sense of the responsibility of their charge; "not making them selves lords over God's heritage," but administering soberly, fatherly, wisely. Surely the lament of the Tuscan poet for Rome, because she was not as she was once (Roma, Roma, non è piu com era primo), has an application now every whit as forcible as when it was first uttered. The eye of the citizen of the world rests on the Eternal City, and sees things so different to what St. Peter and his imme liate successors saw there, that he may well be excused for quoting the poet's words. It has been suggested by an eminent historian, skilful in the formation of beautiful and eloquent contrasts between past and present, that if the fisherman of Galilee could revisit the scene of his ministry, he would ask with amazement whose worship the people were celebrating in the places where he had taught and preached the simplicity of Christian faith and works. But however that may be, it is true, as stated above, that there was a time when the Roman Christians were not under papal scrutiny, and also a time when the idea of secular authoritytemporal power-would have been looked on not only as incom patible with true spiritual power, but as preposterous and entirely out of character with the province of a bishop. Let us look back a little upon the Rome of former days, and watch through the telescope of time the gradual growth of that enormous dominion over the minds and consciences of men which is now included in the Papacy, and the growth also of that other subsidiary power, which includes the power of the sword, the power which when St. Peter, in a moment of generous impulse, arrogated to himself and exercised, he was bidden by his Lord to forego it, and to put up his sword into its sheath.

Christ died in the thirty-third year of his age, and the apostles, and their successors, beginning from the feast of Pentecost, preached the Gospel of his kingdom both in the East and West with singular success. Not without much suffering and persecution did they achieve their work; many were the witnesses to truth who were required to lay down their lives for the sake of Him who had in his own person shown them how to die and how to overcome death. The noble army of martyrs had increased to a prodigious size ere Constantine, the first Christian Emperor of Rome, gave relief to its weary battalions. The Church, during 300 years that it suffered violence, lived a life purified by suffering, so that dissensions were few and heresies almost unknown-at least in that portion of the Church which was immediately exposed to persecution. In Rome, for example, whatever there might be in the Churches of Africa and Asia, there was, comparatively speaking, unity; the presbyters, or bishops, were just the heads of congregations, chosen by the congregations as being the fittest for the post; and they were possessed of an authority not aggressive, and which was capable of being curbed, if need were, by the voice of the other presbyters, or of the congregation itself. There was no pretence of infallibility in any one; but quietly, with singleness of heart, in profound humility, and in daily waiting upon the Lord of the Church, the Roman Christians lived and died, worked and prayed; their services being simple and un-Judaized by ceremonics, their chief and daily service the communion of the body and blood of their Lord, whose death they lovingly desired contially to set forth till his coming again.

Between A.D. 324 and 334 the Emperor Constantine built the city which was called after him Constantinople; and removing the court thither, made it the seat of government and the capital of the empire. Rome lay too open to the attacks of the northern and western men, who were coming down gradually from their inhospitable homes, and were pressing closer and closer upon the borders of the empire. The empire, vast and unwieldy as it was, was beginning to feel the fatigue of supporting its own body, and Constantine was anxious to with

draw to a spot where his authority was more unquestioned than in the West. The effect of Constantine's conversion was to bring about the conversion of many lesser potentates, whose people, prepared for the change by the zealous, self-denying Christian missionaries, speedily followed. Thus the kings and people of Iberia, Armenia, of part of Abyssinia, and of India be came Christians, while large numbers of the Goths and Germans in the Imperial army embraced the same faith. The national religion of the Roman Empire, or as it was now called, the Greek Empire, was changed from paganism of various kinds to Christianity.

The Church scarcely throve so well under prosperity as under adversity; but one of the first things done for her under the new régime was to give her the emperor, a layman, for her heal. Constantine was acknowledged to be the supreme head of the Church, because it was deemed necessary to have some head; and the wisdom of the time—and of any time-could think of no one better than the man who was the Church's protector and champion, and who, being a layman, without any pontifica attributes, could not be suspected of spiritual despotism. The Church was administered by 1,800 bishops-1,000 in the Greek, and 800 in the Roman provinces-whose dioceses varied in extent, according to the population, but whose rank was equal. These bishops were elected by the clergy and the people of the diocese, the emperor claiming a right to interfere in their final appointment if he thought fit. But soon there was established by Constantine himself a distinct order of ecclesiastics-bishops who, once appointed, were absolute over their clergy, and who had the power, among other things, to excommunicate those whom they deemed fit subjects for it. The secular arm was lent to enforce the sentences of these rulers, who were compared with the other prelates as archbishops to bishops; but even among these privileged few distinctions were soon taken, according to which Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and afterwards Constantinople, were selected to form patriarchates. or primacies.

Councils met in the spring and autumn of each year to consider the affairs of the whole Church. Archbishops could summon to council all their dependent bishops and clergy, and the patriarchs could do the same by the whole of the clergy in their see; but an extraordinary council, or grand synod, containing representatives from all Christendom, could be summoned by the emperor alone. At the grand synod were discussed matters affecting the whole Church of Christ, and as it was supposed that the Spirit of God must necessarily be present among those who were met to decide upon the affairs of the flock, it came to be maintained that a General Council was infallible, and superior to the Pope-a doctrine which has obtained in the Roman Church ever since. As an instance of this, the General Council of Constance, in 1414, even deposed Pope John XXIII., and elected Martin V. in his place.

In the seventh century the followers of Mahomet (Mahomet died A.D. 631) streamed northward and westward from their Arabian home, and swept away the patriarchates of Antioch and Alexandria, establishing the crescent in the place of the cross. The see of Antioch had never been very powerful, but that of Alexandria was, perhaps, the first of all-first in point of numbers, first in bigotry, first in power. It was corrupt, and it fell before the Saracens, and the Christian Church in Africa has never taken deep root since. Carthage soon followed the fate of Alexandria, and schism springing up between the Churches of Rome and Constantinople, the former was left to pursue that policy of self-aggrandisement which it has laboriously carried out, wherever practicable, ever since.

A remarkable chain of circumstances contributed to the development of the Roman policy. About the year 728 the Romans-neglected by the emperor at Constantinople, whose power was sensibly diminishing year by year-found themselves obliged to take measures for preventing their community falling into a state of anarchy, and for putting it in a posture of defence against external enemies. They formed themselves, therefore, into a sort of dependent republic, much in the same way that Milan, Venice, and other Italian cities had done; and as was perhaps natural, they solicited their bishop, as the most influential man among them, to give them the benefit of his advice in the conduct of affairs. At first it was by request that he took part in their councils: then, seeing the political advantage of such a position, the bishop began to

acquire a prescriptive right to be consulted in all the business of the city. He had spiritual authority over the whole of the Western Empire, and in places where the decree of the emperor would not have been recognised his order was obeyed without question by those whom the zealous missionaries had taught to look upon the Bishop of Rome as their divinely-appointed head. The half-barbarous kings and princes who ruled in Western Europe acknowledged him as Patriarch, while all Western bishops everywhere admitted that whoever was Bishop of Rome was their Pope, or Father in God. The Romans thought that such a man, in correspondence with many princes, and of great influence throughout the West, would be able to save them from the evermore threatening invasions of the "barbarians." They offered the Pope the temporal government of their city, and he, not answering them with any assertion that his kingdom was not of this world, accepted it, and became autocrat of Rome. The emperor allowed the arrangement, and so things went on, and in 730 the people saw the effect of what they had done, when Luitprand, King of the Lombards, flushed with victory and spoil, was stopped even at the gates of Rome by the remonstrances of Pope Gregory II.

In 754 Astolphus, successor to Luitprand, seized on Ravenna, the rival see of Rome, abolished the exarchate, or civil government there, together with the spiritual, and annexed the city to his dominions. He thought to do the same by Rome, which he summoned to surrender. Stephen II., who became Pope in 752, had foreseen what was coming, and had applied to King Pepin, son of Charles Martel, for assistance. That prince, as the son of a usurper, was only too glad to arrange an alliance with so useful a person as the Pope of Rome. He marched to his assistance, drove Astolphus back, and when, Pepin being gone, Astolphus returned, he once more came down with an army, and utterly routed him. This was no small matter; but when in the reign of Desiderius, the next Lombard king, the attacks on Rome were renewed, and Charlemagne came down with a force which crushed resistance, destroyed the kingdom of Lombardy, and annexed it to his own empire, the benefit to the Romans exceeded all their hopes. In the year 800 Charlemagne came in person to Rome, and was elected, at the Pope's suggestion, emperor, by people who had not the faintest right to confer the title. But that made no difference. The title was what was wanted, and the Emperor of the West was crowned solemnly by the Pope, who in return was confirmed in his office, and was given in fee and to hold, under his temporal sway, the territory that was held by his old rival, the Archbishop of Ravenna.

Fifty years afterwards (A.D. 859) a monk of Mayence, named Isidore, announced that he had discovered the decretals of the Popes of Rome from the time of St. Peter; in other words, a Set of papal decrees, which pretended to have the assent of the emperors and the people, and which contained the most uncompromising assertions that if the papal kingdom was of the other world, it was of this world also, for as Christ was above all earthly things, so his vice-gerent must be above them too, and by an easy process of reasoning the kingdoms of this world were demonstrated to belong to the Pope. Adrian I. many years before had written to Charlemagne-after the bestowal of his gifts-to say that a deed of gift by Constantine had been discovered, from which it appeared that Constantine, having been cured by baptism of a leprosy, was so grateful to St. Sylvester, Bishop of Rome, that he declared his intention of going to live at Constantinople, in order that the Pope' might possess Rome, and all the Western Empire, spiritually and temporally.

Belief was given to the decretals, and to the gift of Constantine, though they have long since been disavowed by the Roman Church. Both documents were shameful forgeries. Upon them, and upon the actual gifts to the Papacy, was reared the fabric of the temporal power, which not only pretended to have anthority within what were called the States of the Church, but to be, by divine right, freeholder and lord paramount of all the kingdoms of the earth, claiming even the right to dispossess kings, in the event of their proving disobedient. This sort of pretension was bound sooner or later to produce a disturbance, since the emperor claimed the right which Charlemagne exercised, of confirming or rejecting the election of Pope by the Roman people. Gradually the patient diplomacy of the Court of Rome prepared for the contest which came with might about

the year 1060. In 1058 Nicholas II. took away from the Romans the right to elect their Pope, and gave it to the cardinals or hinges of the Church, whose voices alone were to decide the matter, and who generally selected a Pope from among their own body. This was a preparatory step.

The Emperors of Germany-descendants or representatives of that Charlemagne who had been elected and crowned Emperor of the West at Rome in the year 800, and who had ever insisted on his power to approve or displace the Pope of Rome himselfwere informed that they must not only renounce their right in the case of the Pope, but in the case of all the other clergy in their dominions, and that they must regard themselves as the vassals of the See of Rome. Broadly stated, this was the issue on which commenced in the year 1061 the wasteful and cruel faction wars of the Guelphs (Welf) and Ghibelines (Waiblingen) which set all western Christendom by the ears for over two centuries. The Guelphs represented the papal party, which was made up of some powerful and many minor princes of Europe; the Ghibelines represented the empire and its adherents. Sometimes one side had the advantage, sometimes the other; the emperor was more than once utterly defeated, and in peril of his life; at another time the emperor had the satisfaction of seeing Rome at his feet. All the quarrels of Europe for a while worked into this quasi-religious war; the malcontents with the emperor siding with the Guelphs temporarily, till they had attained their object, and then being quite ready to assist the emperor against his permanent foes. But, on the whole, the Papacy sucked out no small advantage from the contest, and in the long run may be said to have been the winner. In 1076, when Gregory VII., the famous Hildebrand, was Pope, the Countess Matilda gave the whole of her possessions, including the greater part of Italy between Piedmont and Rome, to the Pope; and this gift, with the gifts already in possession, made the spiritual head of the Church, the "servant of the servants of God," a formidable temporal power.

The whole of the vast authority wielded by the Roman priesthood was made to subserve the purpose of exalting the sovereign pontiff over all other rulers, and, as might have been expected, Christ's work remained undone; "the hungry sheep looked up and were not fed;" abuses and corruptions of all sorts abounded, and the supply of salt was low wherewith to savour the earth. From time to time men stood forth and denounced spiritual wickedness in high places, but for the most part darkness covered the land, and gross darkness the people; the blind led the blind, with the inevitable result; and men became so accustomed to the dark, that they were confused and annoyed when the light came. But the very excess of corruption in the Papacy brought about the cure of the disease, at least over great part of Christendom. When Leo X., in 1517, tried to replenish his coffers by selling, through travelling agents, indulgences for sins not yet committed, the spirit of the German people rebelled, and Luther fired the train which led to the explosion of the Reformation. The Reformation was a fatal blow to the universal spiritual ascendancy of the Roman bishop; but his temporal power-stretched over the whole of Italy, from Ferrara on the north-east, and Lucca on the north-west, to the confines of the kingdom of Naples on the south, the King of Naples being his very obedient servant-remained as before, till Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the papal power with that of all the other princes in the peninsula.

The papal administration of the civil government was oppressive and life-killing in the extreme. Everything, every man, was under priestly surveillance-none but the black gendarmerie flourished. The government had been a scandal to Europe, but so great was the revulsion of feeling after the fall of Napoleon, the destroyer of kingdoms, that it was restored, and the Italians were handed over, bound tighter than before, to the guardianship they hated and despised. It was reserved for our day, and for our eyes to witness, the destruction of all but a nominal principality for the Pope beyond the walls of the Eternal City."

66

As yet the remnant is left, and "is it not a little one ?" Who can tell whether, ere the world has entered on another year, even that remnant may not be reft away with the life of the old man, out of respect for whom the onward march of the inevitable has been for a short time stayed? "The kingdoms are the Lord's, and he is the governor among the princes."

GEOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.-X. PROBLEM XXIX. (Fig. 51).—A cube 4 feet side has one of its faces at an angle of 50° with the PP, its nearest edge touches the picture plane 1 foot to the left of the eye; height of eye 5 feet; distance from the PP 8 feet; scale 1 inch to the foot. It will be seen that as the nearest angle touches the PP, it will commence at b,

1 foot to the left of a; and because b is a point of contact, its height, bc, may be measured from b; bd is equal to the edge of the cube, 4 feet; its perspective length, bm, is cut off the vanishing line b vp2 by its distance point DVP2. The other face of the cube must be treated in the same way; it vanishes at vpl, therefore the line from e to cut off the perspective length bn must be drawn to DVP; the lines of the horizontal and upper face of the cube will be ruled to their respective vanishing points, as in Fig. 33, Lesson V., Vol. III., page 9.

PROBLEM XXX. (Fig. 52).-Draw by this method the flight of steps given in Lesson VIII., page 208. There are three, each 4 feet long, 1 foot wide, and 9 inches high; their front making an angle of 40° with the picture plane. The distance of the eye of the observer from the picture plane is 6 feet; from the plane to the nearest point of the object 1 foot; the height of the eye 4-5 feet; scale 1 inch to the foot.

We will merely go through the order of procedure, until

we

VP2

steps, o, p, n; rule from these points to VP2. From the widths of the steps e, f, g, h, draw lines towards DVP2, stopping at the vanishing line from c, from which perpendicular lines, made to cut the retiring lines from o p n, will give the respective ends and heights of the steps; from the angles of the steps draw lines towards VP'. To cut off the lengths of the steps upon the vanishing line c VP1, draw the line c v, directed by DVP'; make

DEVP?

m

40

PP

f

come to something especially suggested by this problem. Draw the PP; the HL; place the station point, marked E; draw the line from E to find the vpl for the angle of inclination of the face with the PP. As the base of the object forms a right angle, the line E VP2 must be drawn at a right angle with E VP for the VP of the ends of the steps. Produce E PS to the PP at a; the nearest point within is 1 foot; make a bequal 1 foot, and a line from 6 drawn to DE will cut PS a in c, the nearest point within; draw lines from c to each VP, and find their distance points. A line from DVP2 must be drawn through c to the PP at e; the widths of the steps will be marked off at f, g, h. Produce VP c to the PP at m, draw the perpendicular m n for a measuring line, and upon it mark off the heights of the three

น

vw equal to 4 feet, the length of the steps; from w draw back again towards DVP', cutting the vanishing line from c in k; draw from k tor, directed by VP, from raise another measuring line for the opposite ends of the steps. Make s tu equal to o pn, draw lines from them to VP2; these last lines,intersecting the retiring lines from the tops of the steps, will give the further ends. These slight directions will be quite sufficient for the guidance those who have thoroughly studied Problem XXVII.

of

If the pupil will turn back to Lesson VI., Problem XVIII.,

Vpl Fig. 37, page 72, he

will there be re

minded how the perspective of an inclined line or plane is obtained by the help of orthographic projection; that is, from a given position of the inclined plane, to produce its plan and ele vation, and afterwards from both produce the perspective projection. We now propose to draw the perspective of inclinations without previously constructing a plan. We must start once more from one of the leading principles of perspective belonging to every system, and which is well known to our pupils that all horizontal retiring lines and planes have their vanishing points upon the line of sight; to this must now be added: directly a line or a plane ceases to be horizontal, having one of its ends raised or lowered, its vanishing point is raised or lowered also, for, notwithstanding its inclination, it retires, and has a vanishing point; therefore the vanishing point of an inclined line or planes perpendicularly above the point to

which it retired before it was raised out of its horizontal position-in other words, the position of the new vanishing point is according to the angle of the inclination of the line or plane; this brings us to our object, to show where to find the VP, by constructing the angle.

VP2

VP

DVP2

HL

50°

PROBLEM XXXI. (Fig. 53).-Give the perspective representation of a pole inclined to the ground at an angle of 30°. The plan of the pole is at an angle of 50° with the PP. Length of pole 6 feet; the end on the ground is 2 feet within the picture. The distance of the eye from the PP 8 feet; its height from the ground 4 feet. First draw the HL, and upon it, from the PS as a centre, draw the semicircle with a radius equal to the distance of the eye from the PP; raise a perpendicular line from PS to E, and through E tangential to the semicircle draw a line parallel to the HL. From E draw a line (E VP) at an angle of 50° with the tangential line. Draw the BP (base of the picture) parallel to the HL at a distance of 4 feet. Draw PS c, and make c d equal to 2 feet; draw a line from d to DE, cutting PS c in a; this will give the point where the pole rests upon the ground. Now if the pole were in an horizontal position, its vanishing point would be at the VP on the HL, but being inclined, its true vanishing point is above it (if the inclination had been downwards, its vanishing point would have been below the HL). Therefore through the VP on the HL draw an indefinite | perpendicular line; find the distance point of the VP by drawing the arc E DVP from VP as a centre, and with the radius VP E. From DVP draw a line at an angle of 30°, meeting the perpendicular from VP in VP2; the VP2 will be the vanishing point for the inclined line. Through the point a draw a line directed to VP and meeting the BP in f (the point of contact); from ƒ draw the perpendicular f g h (the line of contact). Again, the pupil must be reminded of a rule we gave in our last lesson, that every vanishing line must be cut from its own distance point. Now the vanishing line in this case is of the pole only from a to VP2, and upon this line we must cut off a portion equal to the length of the pole, consoquently we must first find the distince point of VP: thus, from VP2 as a centre, and with the distance to DVP

on the HL, draw an arc from DVP to DVP?. With the use of this distance point we now cut off the length of the pole: draw a line from DVP2, through a, to the line of contact at g; mark off g h equal to the length of the pole, 6 feet; and from h draw a line back again to DVP2, cutting the vanishing line of the pole in b; a b will be the required perspective representation of the pole. To prove this, draw anywhere upon EP the line mn, 6 feet long, and at an angle of 30°; the pupil will see that this is the full length of the pole at the given angle, consequently its height from the ground at n is shown; draw no parallel to HL-in other words, mark the height of the pole from the ground upon the line of contact; draw a line from o to the VP, it will be found to cut the top of

be applied to give the inclination of a roof, and as it will be necessary to draw the whole figure we will give out the whole problem, and advise that it should be done on a larger scale: our diagram is drawn to a scale of 60 feet to the inch to economise space; it should be drawn by our pupils on a scale of about 10 or 12 feet to the inch.

PROBLEM XXXII. (Fig. 54).Draw the perspective view of a square tower having wings: the bases of the tower and the wings are each a square of 48 feet side; height of tower 96 feet, and of the walls of the wings 48 feet; the inclination of the roof 30°, HL 10 feet, nearest end 12 feet within the PP; distance of the eye angle of the front of the building with

Having repeated in the last problem the process which was explained in the last lesson, of finding the PS, E, and HL, the vanishing points and their distance points, we will commence by finding the position of the nearest corner of the building. Draw from PS to a; make a b equal 12 feet; draw from b to DE, the intersection will give the point required, from which a line must be drawn to vP1. The next part of the process is the stumblingpoint of most beginners in this branch of perspective, and we therefore request their attention to it. Find the distance point of vpl, viz., DVP1. From DVP1 draw a line through the nearest corner already found to the BP at e; measure from e to f, from f to g, and from g to h, each distance equal to the lengths of the bases of the wings and tower; rule from these points back again to DVP', we shall then have cut the several proportions of the front of the building off the vanishing line that is, from the

nearest angle below c to vp1-by the help of the distance point of vpl. We make no excuse for repeating this, because we know from practical experience how often this

is forgotten. The end of the building must be treated in

DVP2 to p; pr is the width of the building; VP2 its vanishing point; the heights on the line of contact are at n and 0. We presume there will be no difficulty with the rest of the perpendicular and horizontal lines, and we now proceed with the roof. Because the ridge of the roof is over the centre of the body of the building, there is no necessity in this case for finding more than one vanishing point for the roof, viz., the inclination st. The vanishing point for that inclination is vp3 on the perpendicular from VP, found by making an angle of 30° from DVP2. The centre of the building is found by drawing the diagonals at the end and a perpendicular through their intersec