twenty letters of the alphabet are so many ciphers. In the series, however, three obsolete forms are introduced, namely, after e the letter Bau or digamma, г, or Σri, that is, 5, as the sign for 6; also коTTα, that is, ?, as the sign for 90; and Zauri, Z,

wards B with a force equal to the pressure of a column of water the elements of words. Hence, with the Greeks, the four-andwhose height is equal to the difference between the two columns A B and C D. Hence, the greater the difference of level between the liquid in the vessel c and the open mouth B of the tube, the greater will be the speed at which the liquid will flow; if both come to the same level, it will cease to run. In order to avoid the risk of drawing some of the liquid into the mouth while sucking out the air, a small tube is frequently attached near the end of the lower limb of the syphon; the finger may then be placed over the end to close it, and the air drawn out by this tube, in which the rise of the liquid will be plainly seen.

An arrangement, designed to avoid trouble in filling the tube, is known as the Wurtemberg syphon. In this both limbs are of the same length, and are turned up so that, when once filled, it will remain so, and thus is always ready for use. As, however, the only difference in the effective length of the limbs arises from the distance to which one is immersed in the liquid, only a small head of water can be obtained, and thus the liquid flows but slowly.

Since it is the pressure of the atmosphere which causes the liquid to rise in the bend of the syphon, the highest point in it must not exceed 34 feet if water is used, or 30 inches if it be mercury; for, as we have seen, the pressure of the air is only sufficient to balance columns of these heights.

In carrying on extensive drainage operations, as is frequently done in the low parts of Holland, or, on a smaller scale, in the fen district of our own country, a drain is frequently constructed which has to discharge itself into a tidal river, or the sea, but is, at high water, below its level. Means have, therefore, to be adopted to prevent the tidal water flowing up the drain and flooding the land, and floodgates are frequently used for this purpose. They are, however, very expensive to make and keep in repair on account of the great pressure they have to sustain from the water being higher on one side than on the other; and if a channel, however small, be formed by the water under their foundations, its pressure will soon be sufficient to blow up the sluice. This happened a few years since at the "Middle Level," one of the drains which empties into the Ouse near King's Lynn, and a great loss of property was the result. To guard against these difficulties syphons are now sometimes used instead of gates, and are found to answer well. Piles are driven across the drain, and a strong embankment formed, so as to resist the pressure on either side. Large syphons are then placed over this, and small pipes are brought from the highest point of each syphon to a large air-pump, by which the air is removed, and the syphons set to work. When the water rises higher on the river side, air is re-admitted above, and the syphons cease to act.

LESSONS IN GREEK.—XXI.

THE NUMERALS.-RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES.

THE numerals express the relation of number. According to their import they may be divided into five classes: 1, the cardinals; 2, the ordinals; 3, the multiplicatives; 4, the proportionals; and 5, the substantive numerals.

The foundation of the whole are the cardinals, or the chief, so called because they are the hinge (in Latin, cardo) on which the others turn. The cardinals answer to the question how many? as one, two, five, etc. Of the cardinals, the four that come first, and the round numbers from 200 (diaкoσioi) up to 10,000 (μvpioi), as well as the compounds of uupio, have the inflections of adjectives; all the rest are indeclinable. The thousands are formed by the help of numeral adverbs: for example, тpis-xiλioi, 3,000. The ordinals denote the order in which the numbers follow, or the place in the series held by a particular number; as the fourth, TETарTOS. They are all inflected like adjectives of three terminations.

The multiplicatives denote how often a quality is repeated, as twofold, fourfold; they are compounds of Aous, and have three adjectival terminations, -ous, -n, -ovv, as dinλous. Then there are numeral adverbs in -akis, which answer to the question how often? as EKATOVтakis, a hundred times.

The proportionals are compounds of λarios, -a, -ov, and denote so much the more than some other object, as diλaσios, tries as much.

The substantive numerals express the abstract idea of number, as duas, gen. -ados, duality.

The alphabet furnishes signs for numbers, as well as supplies

as the sign for 900.

The first eight letters, from alpha to theta, bau or sti included, make the first series consisting of units; the ensuing eight, from iota to pi, including koppa, form the second series, or the succession of tens; and the remaining eight, from rho to omega, together with sampi, make up the hundreds. Eleven is a', or 10 and 1; twelve is 8', 10 and 2, etc.

Up to 999, the letters when used as figures have an accent over them each, thus a'. When more than one sign stand together, the mark is over the last, thus y'. With 1000 the alphabet begins afresh. In order to indicate this the mark is placed under the letter-thus a 1, but a = 1000; 10, but The year 1869 in Greek numerals is written thus,

= 10,000. αωξθ', 1869.

=

Nom. eis,

μια,

δυο.

Gen.

ένος,

μιας,

ένος ;

δυοιν.

Dat.

ένι,

μια,

ένι ;

δυοιν.

Acc. ένα,

μιαν, ἑν;

δυο.

of the time eight months. 4. The number of the army is 39,850. 5. (There) are four generals of the army, each of the four of (that is, commanding) 30,990 soldiers. 6. In the battle (there) were present 96,650 soldiers and 150 scythe-bearing chariots.

ΚΕΥ ΤΟ ΕXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEΚ. ΧΧ.
EXERCISE 68.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

1. This man is good. 2. This judgment is just. 3. This woman is beautiful. 4. That man is a king. 5. The king himself is general. 6. Ο boy, bear him the key. 7. Some do not know the same things concerning the same people on the same day. 8. To speak and to act is not the same thing. 9. These roses which bloom in the garden are lovely. 10. Man is a certain clever contrivance. 11. If you cultivate Dat. the friendship of any man, examine carefully into his character. 12. Acc. τρεις, Who writes this letter? 13. Tell me who writes this letter? 14. Το others communicate of the things which you have. 15. He is happy Like eis, decline its compounds, ουδεις and μηδεις, no one : thus, who has kind children. 16. That man is most happy who has no ουδεις, ουδεμια, ουδεν; gen., ουδενος, ουδεμιας, etc. Plural, ουδενες, calamity. 17. Why do you take anxious thought? 18. I cannot tell ουδεμίαι, ουδένα, ουδεμων, ουδεσι, etc. ; the δ is euphonie. why I take anxious thought. 19. As is the disposition of each, such Avo is often used as an indeclinable word for all cases. The is his manner of life. 20. Who is that woman yonder ? 21. Tell me numeral αμφω, both, has, like δυο, in the genitive and dative οιν— who is that woman yonder. thus, αμφοίν ; the accusative is the same as the nominative; like δυο, αμφω is sometimes used as an indeclinable.

Greek or 6063 En- LAZINESS is the cause of more failures in life than incapacity or want of opportunity. There are multitudes who want neither the ability to do, nor the occasion to succeed, who yet lose the prizes in life's race simply through sheer indolence and inIndolence takes many forms, such as sloth, love of ease, the dislike of all kinds of trouble; and the succumbing also to ghosts of the imagination tends to affright with difficulties, and so weaken energy at the outset of the career. Indolence is, therefore, a danger to character which ought to be fought and fenced with in earliest days; and certainly of the things not necessary for the young, we may class all kinds of narcotics whatsoever. They only serve to help the most morally debilitating tendencies of human nature, and very often prevent the commencement of life being such as to ensure future honour and success. There is a large amount of latent energy in most human beings. It is impossible, indeed, to read the lives of successful men without being marvel-struck with the record of their energy. When we study such works as Smiles" SelfHelp," we are made sensible of the possibilities inherent in most human lives; and when we contrast such special histories with lives in general, we can but be made alive to the fact that what is wanted to ensure more general success in human history is not so much skill, genius, or even opportunity, as that which is expressed in this one word, ENERGY. Spasmodic efforts are common to multitudes, and although much strength is on such occasions put forth, it cannot be truly denominated energy. This expression comes from the Greek word ενέργεια, which means internal or inherent power, and its opposite in our language is enervate, which means to unnerve, to weaken or debilitate. This energy is supposed to be in a very large degree the property of the Anglo-Saxon race. This is manifested amid the wild prairies of Australia and America, where the sound of the axe and the hammer has been heard, and where the homes of civilisation have been erected amidst what once were most desolate wilds. Circumstances, it is true, called this energy out, and developed it in manifold ways; and it becomes us, therefore, to remember that the circumstances of our civi lised life sometimes tend to the deadening of our activities. One more danger lies in the fact that success is difficult in densely-populated nations, where every trade and profession seems to have more than its full complement of competitors. Energy is apt to die out where there are few avenues of ad1. It is better to have one intelligent friend than many unin- vancement, and the heart gets wearied of disappointed hopes. telligent ones. 2. Seventy years produce about (aupi and acc.) But this is only the case with those who forget that the 25,555 days. 3. The sum total of the way from the battle at highest pinnacles of success gained by the few are not, after (εν) Babylon to (εις) Cotyora, of the retreat, which Xenophon all, perhaps, the happiest; and that to succeed in securing describes, is 122 stages, 620 parasangs, 18, 600 stadia, the length | a happy home and a sphere of honest duty is well worth the

1. Ο Ευφράτης ποταμός εστι το ευρος τετταρων σταδίων. 2. Το δε στάδιον έχει παρα τοις Ρωμαιοις πεντε και εικοσι και έκατον βήματα, η πεντε και εικοσι και εξακοσίους ποδας. 3. Κυρῳ παρησαν αἱ εκ Πελοποννησου νηες τριακοντα πέντε. 4. Του Σαρου, Κιλικίας ποτάμου, ΤΟ εύρος ην τρια πλεθρα. 5. Το δε πλεθρον εχει ἑκατον πόδας. 6. Κύδνος, Κιλικίας ποταμος, ευρος εστι δυο πλεθρων. 7. Του Μαιανδρου, Φρυγίας ποταμού, το ευρος εστιν εικοσι πεντε ποδων. 8. Ὁ παρασαγγης, Περσικόν μέτρον, έχει τριακοντα σταδια η πεντηκοντα και ἑπτακοσίους και οκτακισχιλιους και μυρίους πόδας. 9. Αριθμός συμπασης της όδου της αναβασεως και καταβάσεως, ἡ ὑπο Ξενοφωντος συγγραφεται, ησαν σταθμοι διακόσιοι δεκα πεντε, παρασαγγαι χίλιοι έκατον πεντήκοντα πέντε, σταδια τρισμυρια τετρακισχιλια εξακόσια πεντήκοντα, χρονου πληθος της αναβασεως και καταβάσεως ενιαυτος και τρεις μήνες. 10. Ένας φιλια συνετου κρείττων εστιν ασυνετων ἁπάντων. 11. Του Κύρου στρατεύματος ην αριθμός των μεν Ελληνων ὁπλῖται μυριοι και τετρακοσιοι, πελτασται δε δισχίλιοι και πεντακοσιοι, των δε μετα Κυρού Βαρβαρων δεκα μυριάδες και ἁρματα δρεπανηφορα αμφι τα εικοσι. EXERCISE 71.-ENGLISH-GREEK.

ardent energy of men. With all the drawbacks of an overpopulated nation, we thus secure all the surrounding advantages of literature, society, science and art-blessings which early and crude civilisations cannot possibly enjoy.

Energy keeps on at the life-task, whatever may be the disadvantages and whatever the difficulties. There may be no song of "Cheer, boys, cheer!" accompanying the toiler, but his heart keeps up the music of hope. Early and late he is at his post, remembering the old fable of the tortoise and the hare, keeping Blow after on-on-on; steadily but surely winning the race. blow comes on the anvil, till the stout iron of difficulty is bent. Pull after pull comes to the bending oars, till the prow of life's boat has cleared the obstructive tides, and glides into serene waters. Again and again the jagged rock is scaled and the tufted grass seized with firmer hands—the débris rattling down the rocks -till the summit is gained. And energy is a happy thing; it exercises all the powers of the nature, and puts them at full stretch. The worst miseries, as we know, come from indolence and the what-to-do-next sort of feeling, which implies that time hangs heavily on the hands. There are multitudes of the rich and well-to-do who would give worlds to enjoy the sweet pleasures of fully-developed energies; for, as Ruskin says, "to draw hard breath o'er ploughshare and spade, to read, to thinkthese are the things that make men happy." Only let us remember that, as he also says, there are limbs of the mind as well as of the body, and that the former need earnest, hearty exercise as well as the latter.

Energy may be developed in many ways. Those whose duties at the desk are over early, have the eventide to devote to studies

full of interest and joy; and if a certain amount of roughness and seeming incapability do develop themselves at first, these will give place to results which will surprise them more even than their friends. Energy-under the government of wisdom, of course-will be selective, and the expenditure of strength will be directed to those points of attainment for which there is most apparent fitness. Doubtless men differ constitutionally. Some possess enfeebled constitutions, and the easily-weakened body reacts upon the mind; whilst some have a seemingly inexhaustible store of animal health and spirits. It may, however, be questioned whether energy is not also very much a matter of habit; for nothing grows upon men like indolence. Those, for instance, who commence to indulge in a "siesta' in the daytime, soon find nature calling upon them at that season for repose, and they find it difficult to shake off a sleepiness which is in no sense a necessity, but which has been called for by self-indulgence at the first.

8. Add

4a 6c
b'd

3m

and together.

3x

9. Add a +

10. Add 42

11. Add

За 2c

3x

с

a

and a +

together.

12. Add 2a + x

x-ya
с

13. What is the sum of a and

and together.

36x + 4b
b

14. What is the sum of 3d and

15. What is the sum of 5x and

Early rising is the most conducive to energy, as it enables us to prepare for all the duties of the day quietly, without fuss or hurry. Much of indolence and failure come from the fact that matters are crowding upon us for which we are not ready, and we break down and give in because there is more to do than we can well accomplish. We let many duties daily accumulate till the difficulties are insurmountable. But by the habit of early rising we are, so to speak, prepared for the daily tasks in a spirit which antedates duties, and so has already secured their due fulfilment. Companionship with those who are themselves energetic has much to do with the cultivation of this power; an idler about you tempts you in a thousand ways, and, as his example falls in with the easy side of your nature, you are constantly in danger of giving way; and one wasted hour often leads to a lost and idle day. It is therefore the part of wisdom to select such friends as will quicken us with their endeavours, rather than those who will hinder us by their indolence. The objects to which energy is to be directed are, of course, of varied importance; but it is the mark of a small mind to waste its wealth of strength on some petty purposes, whilst the greater matters of life and duty are neglected. There is, however, in some lives a busy restlessness which seeks for no great thing to do, and which is but another name for idle fussiness; but energy, wisely developed and well directed, is an element of character which makes as much difference between men as that contrast in the old story-books between the Liliputians and the Giants. Many men are dwarfed solely by their indolence, and some possessed even of inferior powers are, by contrast, giants in commerce, science, and art, because they we have are men in earnest, whose lives are full of the most persistent endeavours to secure the noble ends which they set before them, and resolutely pursued.

m

h + d ?

together.