Alarich, m. Alaric. Begriff'. m. concep- Erler'nung, f.learning, tend. Sethe, m. Goth. Leiten, to guide, lead, RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES. up. Verrei'sen, to go on a set out. journey? 9. I overtook my brother after three days' journey. 10. Six months ago I was on the point of going to America, but now I am very glad that I remained at home. "" SECTION XCIV.-IDIOMATIC PHRASES (continued). Hören (to hear), followed by auf with an accusative, signifies "to listen to ;' as:- -Er hört auf das, was ich ihm sage, he listens to what I tell him, Hören, however, when connected with auf as a mere prefix, signifies "to cease, to discontinue;" as :-Es hört auf zu regnen, it stops raining (ceases to rain). Der Regen hört auf, the rain ceases. 1. Aber, in the phrase Hunderte und aber Hunderte, Tausende und aber Tausende, etc., signifies "yet again, yet more, still other." So, also, weh und aber weh dem Mann, O woe and yet again woe to the man. 2. Zu Grunde gehen, "to go to the ground, or to the bottom, that is, to sink, to founder," has hence the general signification, “to go to ruin, or be destroyed." So, also, zu Grunde richten, “to destroy, to ruin," etc.; as:- -Das Schiff ist mit Mann und Maus zu Grunde gegangen, the ship with man and mouse has perished (gone to the bottom). Unvorsichtige Speculationen haben den Kauf He wished me a pleasant jour-mann zu Grunde gerichtet, imprudent speculations have effected the ney. I remember former times, and I intend to reward his diligence. I am packing my trunk, be- Er ist im Begriff', nach A'sien zu He is on the point of going to reisen. Gustav Adolph führte seine Schweren von Sieg zu Sieg, und erkauf'te ten bei Lügen mit seinem Leben. Der Blip'ableiter ist eine wichtige amerika'nische Erfindung. Asia. Gustavus Adolphus led his EXERCISE 180. 1. Ich wünsche Ihnen einen guten Morgen. 2. Ich habe die Ehre, Ihnen einen guten Morgen zu wünschen. 3. Ich gedente (Sect. XLVI.) Seret auf, des Lebens Teppich vor meiner Freunde mit inniger Liebe. 4. In den Zeiten des Glückes gedachte 13. mit Bolen. 18. Der Kaufmann führt Waaren zum Markte. 19. Gin eines Kind leitete den blinden Mann. 20. Alarich wurde von den Gothen in dem Busento degraben, nachdem sie zuvor die Strömung abgeleitet hatten. 21. Er leitet einen Jeden nach seinem Rath. 22. Wer sich nicht von der Vernunft leiten läßt, der läuft Gefahr, daß ihn seine Leidenschaften in's Ver. terben führen. 23. Der fleißige Schüler holte seine Gameraden bei der Erlernung der englischen Sprache noch ein, obgleich dieselben beinahe vier Wochen eher angefangen hatten. 24. Wir holten die Freunde auf ihrem Wege noch ein, obgleich sie eine halbe Stunte früher fortgegangen waren. 25. Heut zu Tage erreichen die Menschen kein so hohes Alter mehr, als in früheren Zeiten. 26. Man hört heut zu Tage von nichts Anderm frrechen, als von Krieg. 27. Man hört heutiges Tages viel Hagen über schlechte Zeiten. EXERCISE 181. 1. I wish you a good evening. 2. I have the pleasure to wish you a good morning. 3. When in foreign countries, we often remember with affection our friends at home. 4. I intend to go next month to the Continent. 5. Do you intend to remain long there? 6. No, I do not intend to remain long there; I shall Roon return. 7. He tried to overtake his friend in learning the German language, but he could not, as his friend was too far advanced. 8. Do you intend to overtake your brother on his mich aus zubreiten, ich bin elend Schante, f. shame, disgrace, infamy. Segel, n. sail. Tagesgeschäft, n. busi ness of the day. Ufer, n. bank, shore. Berrichten, to do, per form. Verschwenderisch, prodigal, lavish, profuse. Bersin'fen, to sink. Verza'gen, to faint, lose courage. 3wif'tigkeit, f. discord, dissension, quar rel. Cease to spread life's carpet out before me; I am miserable and imprisoned. Sobald er dieses sah, hörte er auf zu As soon as he saw this, he Liebig belongs to (is among) the most learned men of Germany. He did not go out before (till) he had read an hour. The Russian campaign ruined the (destroyed) "Grand. Army" (as it used to be called). de In the Russian campaign the their lives. As I arrived he was just reading my letter. That redounds greatly to his honour. EXERCISE 182. 1. Als Rudolph von Habsburg Kaiser von Deutschland geworden war, hörten tie innern Zwiftigkeiten und das sogenannte Faußtrecht in diesem Reiche auf. 2. Nachdem sie einige Hirsche erlegt hatten, hörten sie auf zu jagen. 3. Es hört auf zu regnen, und wir können nun unsere Reise weiter fortseßen. 4. Mein Bruder ist zu Hause, er liegt schon acht Tage 3u Bette. 5. In Deutschland sind andere Sitten und Gebräuche, als in Amerika. 6. 3u Regensburg wurden in der legten Zeit die Reichstage gehalten. 7. Die hohe Schule zu Breslau gehört zu den besten in Deutsch land. 8. Als wir hinkamen, speisten sie gerade zu Mittag. 9. Sie EXERCISE 183. 23. 13. Die Athener erklärten, Niemand als Jupiter follte von nun an in Athen regieren. 14. So lange mein Junerstes mein Betragen billigt, wird (sell) das Urtheil der Leute mich nicht beunruhigen. 15. Er hat den lezten Punkt seiner Rede besonders hervorgehoben. 16. Sie machten sich auf seine Rechnung lustig, und er nahm es nicht wahr. EXERCISE 136 (Vol. II., page 408). The diligent 1. The teacher loves and praises the diligent scholar. scholar is loved and praised by the teacher. 2. The huntsman shoots, not only wolves and bears, but also birds. Not only wolves and bears, but also birds, are shot by the huntsman. 3. The mother warned the son. The son was warned by the mother. 4. The letter-carrier brought a letter. The letter was brought by the letter-carrier. 5. The Jew has bought the poor man's horse. The poor man's horse 6. The Swiss has sung the songs of the has been bought by the Jew. Alps beautifully. The songs of the Alps have been beautifully sung by the Swiss. 7. The child has forgotten the book. The book has been = forgotten by the child. 8. The butcher has killed the calf. The calf has been killed by the butcher. 9. The commander-in-chief will praise his soldiers.= The soldiers will be praised by their commander-inchief. 10. God will reward the good. The good will be rewarded by God, 11. The neighbour will have assisted the friend. The friend will have been assisted by the neighbour. 12. The heathen priest will have sacrificed the poor girl. =The poor girl will have been sacrificed by the heathen priest. 13. Cæsar was murdered with the co-operation of his friend Brutus. 14. The steepest rocks are climbed by the chamois-hunters. 15. The favourable moment is seized by the prudent 1. Are you listening to what I tell you? 2. Yes, I am listen- KEY TO EXERCISES TO LESSONS IN GERMAN. 1. Excuse me, sir; it was not done intentionally. 2. If he did it intentionally, he is by no means to be excused. 3. Although you did not do it purposely, still it is culpable. 4. Had you done it purposely, then you ought to be ashamed of yourself. 5. They have liberated the prisoner on purpose. 6. This man has not intentionally brought on this delay. 7. As long as such men are at the head of the State we cannot expect an improvement. 8. As long as I have no employment, I cannot be contented. 9. As long as you are well-behaved, you shall have everything that you require. 10. As long as the world has stood, no one has made such an assertion. 11. I will work for you as long as you are ill. 12. As long as he was absent we took care of his whole family. 13. You can lodge in my house as long as you like. 14. If he does not stay so long, he cannot receive my letters any longer. 15. This man works from day-break till late at night. 16. From this time forth I shall take a walk every day from the river to the mountain. 17. I have now received a letter, and shall go to my friends as soon as I can. 18. I shall have arranged all my affairs till the twentieth of January. 19. As I have now arrived, I shall speak to him as soon as I see him. 20. When they came at last, it had become night. 21. From this time forth we shall be friends. 22. We intend to re main in town till it grows evening. 23. The merchant put everything on one account. 24. What you have done is now placed to my account, and I must suffer for the wrong which you have committed. 25. The heat is suffocating to-day. 26. The unfortunate man was suffocated by the smoke. 27. The weeds choke the tender plants. 28. The town was given up to be plundered by the infuriated soldiers. 29. He was left to his fate. 30. He gave especial importance to his gal. lant behaviour, and publicly praised him. 31. In his embarrassment he could not utter a word. 32. She produced an old book after a long search. EXERCISE 135 (Vol. II., page 407). 1. Die Bücher, welche ich bei Ihnen gekauft habe, können Sie auf meine Rechnung seßen. 2. Die Sieger machten sich auf Rechnung ihrer Feinde Lustig. 3. So lange der Mensch Beschäftigung hat, kann er zufrieden sein. 4. So lange die Welt stehen wird, wird Gottes Wort nicht untergehen. 5. Ich werde für meinen Freund arbeiten so lange er krank ist. 6. So lange die Schüler fleißig sind, wird ihr Lehrer sie loben. 7. Sie können bei meiner Familie bleiben so lange Sie wollen. 8. Wenn Sie bleiben wollen, bis ich diese Briefe fertig habe, so können Sie dieselben meinem Freunde mit nehmen. 9. Von nun an werden wir mehr Zeit auf das Stutiren verwen 10. Das Schiff war dem Winde und den Wellen Preis gegeben. 11. Von Tagesanbruch bis spät in die Nacht war die Stadt deni Feuer res Feintes ausgesezt. 12. Die Sonne bricht zwischen den Wolken hervor. den. 16. There was more done in half an hour than at other times in an hour. 17. The quarrel was carried on with great animosity on both sides. 18. Already many a valuable hour has been mis-spent (literally, unused). 19. The work is finished at last, and will appear in a few days. 20. At last it has been ascertained who is the thief. 21. The bridge was carried away by the ice. 22. The camels are often killed by the travellers in the desert, in order to obtain water. 23. The sons of Brutus had been condemned to death by their father. 24. Prometheus had been bound by Jupiter with chains to a rock. 25. The affair will become very interesting. 26. It is to be hoped that the enemy has been beaten. 27. A solemn judgment will be held some day after all people have been assembled. 28. Many will be praised who expected censure, and many be censured who expected praise. 29. This youth had been calumniated. 30. His innocence will be recognised, after his honest actions will have been perceived. THE UNIVERSITIES.-IV. CAMBRIDGE.-II. WE resume our remarks upon this University, by endeavouring to give our readers some idea of the expenses which a student will incur in the course of his residence. These will divide themselves into three heads-fees, tuition, and general expenses. Of these, of course, the last is by far the greatest, the second will vary according to the requirements of the student, and the first will form but a small item in comparison with the whole. Both university and college fees are made to vary with the position or rank of a student, according as he is a nobleman, a fellow-commoner, a pensioner, or a sizar. Three of these names it may be necessary to explain. The great majority of students at the University are called pensioners. They pay the ordinary fees, and the full value of the accommodation which they receive from their college. They dine at the common table in hall, and enjoy no especial privileges. Sizars are distinguished from these in that, on first going into residence, they declare themselves to need some help towards the expenses of their University course. Formerly the name carried with it an inferior position, but in the present day the avowal of poverty is a protection against many temptations, and is despised by none whose acquaintance is worth cultivating. The fellow-commoner, on the other hand, is one who, either from being older than the majority of undergraduates, or from some other reason, is desirous of mixing rather with the fellows of the college. He pays higher fees, and dines with the fellows in hall, but is allowed no other privileges. The principal college fees which a man must pay while an undergraduate, are the caution money, the admission fee, and the fee for tuition. The first is paid to the college, and remains in its possession so long as the student's name remains upon the books. Sizars pay £10, pensioners £15, fellow-commoners £25, and noblemen £50. The admission fee varies at the different colleges between £3 and £5. The terminal payment or tuition -that is, for the care which the tutor of the college takes of the interest of the student and for attendance at the college lectures-varies with the position of the student. A sizar pays £2, a pensioner £6, a fellow-commoner £10, and a nobleman £13. We pass now to the University fees. These are paid to the common chest (1) on matriculation, (2) on attending professors' lectures, (3) for the previous examination, and (4) on taking a degree. On matriculation, a sizar pays 15s.; a pensioner, £5; a fellow-commoner, £10 10s.; a nobleman, £15 10s. The total fees on going into residence, therefore, are-for a sizar, £13 15s.; for a pensioner, £23; for a fellow-commoner, £45 10s.; for a nobleman, £70. On passing the previous examination, every student pays £2 10s., and for every series of professors' lectures (one series of which is required from the candidates for the ordinary degree) the fee is £3 3s. On taking the degree of B.A., which is the only one of which we shall speak, every student pays £7 to the University, and a sum varying from £3 to £6 to his college. At present we have mentioned only the tuition afforded by the college to all students alike. This, as we have pointed out in our former article, is in most cases insufficient for those who are desirous of taking a good place in any of the honour triposes. It is, of course, almost impossible that a lecturer, who has to deal with perhaps forty or fifty men in the course of an hour, can devote much attention to individuals, however much he may exert himself in his endeavours to do so. Moreover, the course of reading which will be most suitable will vary according to the powers or previous reading of the various students, and a course of lectures cannot therefore be made to suit every one. Hence the necessity for obtaining the assistance of a private tutor in addition to the lectures provided by the college. The ordinary charge per term is £8, and for the long vacation £12. An addition of £36 to the year's expenses is a very important item, and weighs considerably with the poorer class of students in their choice of reading. The above charges are considered to entitle the pupil to one hour's private tuition every other day. But those tutors who take a large number of pupils, usually read with them in classes, which has, at all events, one beneficial effect in exciting a feeling of competition. The professors' lectures and other sources of instruction remain to be mentioned. Our space would fail us if we attempted to speak of these individually, and we therefore content ourselves with remarking that it is by means of these that the University proper-that is, as distinct from the colleges-gives its instruction. One course, at least, is required of every candidate for the poll degree or the theological examination. In the latter case, the course must be that of one of the divinity professors. Many of the lectures given are of a very high order, and in the mathematical branches they are of little practical use, so far as regards the tripos examinations, except to men of the highest ability. These, then, are the three methods of acquiring knowledge while residing at Cambridge:-by college lectures, which are compulsory, and paid for in the terminal payment to the college tutor; by private tuition, which is voluntary, and ought not to be required by any but candidates for high honours; and by university lectures, which are voluntary, except in the case of poll men, for whom one course is compulsory. We pass on now to the question of general expense, apart from fees and tuition. On going into residence, the first question which arises is that of obtaining rooms, the second that of furnishing them. The question is often raised as to the comparative economy of living in college or in lodgings in the town. So many collateral influences affect the matter that it cannot be satisfactorily settled in a general answer. The rent of lodgings is undoubtedly higher, but the outlay in furnishing is avoided, and a man of quiet tastes may certainly lead a more retired life in lodgings than he can in college. But the student must remember that out of college he never really tastes the true flavour of university life. The rent of lodgings varies from £5 to £15 per term; the rent of rooms in college from £4 to £10 per annum, the average being about £6. In addition to this there is in college the charge for attendance, £1 per term for a bedmaker only, £1 10s. for a gyp and his wife who will act as bedmaker. Furniture is generally taken on valuation from the preceding occupant of the rooms, but the new-comer is not obliged to take any article which he may not wish for. In this way the expense of furnishing is sometimes exceedingly small, £15 being sufficient to fit up, scantily of course, a sitting-room, a bed-room, and a gyproom. This will not include linen or plate. All students dine in hall, a certain number of dinners there per week being compulsory. The charge for this varies in the different colleges from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per day. This comprises a certain dinner, and anything had which is not comprised in the college provision is supplied from the kitchen and charged for separately. As regards breakfast and tea, the student may supply himself if he pleases from shops in the town, but more usually bread, butter, and milk are dealt out from the college butteries every morning to the various gyps for their respective masters. Other things will be kept in stock by the student himself. To sum up briefly the annual expenses while at Cambridge, and taking rather a low estimate, we may compute them as follows: Under the heading "extras" are included all fines, library pay. ments, etc. A sizar's expenditure will be diminished by £12 in the tuition, by £1 10s. in the gyp, and possibly by £3 in the rooms, making the total about £57 6s. This, again, is a very low estimate, and does not include private tuition, clothing, pocket-money, the cook's bill, or any expenses except those which are absolutely necessary during a residence of twenty-five weeks at the University. Taking everything into consideration, except the expenses of living while away from Cambridge, we should say that the lowest amount upon which a man can live with anything like comfort is £140 for a pensioner, and £120 for a sizar. A syndicate of the University have just presented a report on a scheme for enabling students to be members of the University and obtain a degree without being members of a college. This will probably materially diminish the expenses of residence. We have now to consider the various means by which a student may partially, and in some cases wholly, defray the expenses of his University course. We have said sufficient on the subject of sizarships. We shall therefore pass on at once to scholarships and exhibitions, whether from the school, the college, the University, or from some mercantile company. To take first the mercantile scholarships. These are given by some of the great City companies to young men, generally sons of freedmen, on their going up to the University, and a prior claim is usually given to those who ask for them on the ground of poverty. They range from £30 to £50 a-year. All the large public schools, and many private ones also, are endowed with exhibitions for the benefit of their elder boys on leaving school. They are given for proficiency in various branches of education, mostly in classics or mathematics. They are the means of sending to the University many boys who, but for the assistance thus given, would be debarred from the privilege. They range from £30 to £70, and some even as high as £100 a-year. The pecuniary rewards given by the colleges to undergraduates are of three kinds: minor scholarships, scholarships, and exhibitions. Of these, the first are of recent establishment. They are offered for public competition amongst intending students before going into residence, and are really probationary scholarships, usually lasting for two years, and varying in value from £50 to £70 a-year. The holders of them enjoy all the privileges of scholars. Scholarships are usually given by the colleges for competition amongst their own members. A scholar differs from an exhibitioner in that he is on the foundation of the college. His position is higher than that of the ordinary undergraduate, and he receives a certain amount of income, generally £50 a-year, from the college revenues. An exhibitioner, on the other hand, even though he may receive more money from the college, is not on the foundation, and his exhibition is only given at the option of the master and seniors. A scholarship is usually tenable till the student is of standing to take the degree of M.A. The highest honour which a student can gain during his undergraduate course is that of obtaining one of the University scholarships. These vary very much in value, and are given for proficiency in various subjects, among which mathematics, classics, Hebrew, theology, law, and poetry are included. They are competed for by the best men of all years, and their value to the successful candidate consists rather in the distinction which they confer than in the pecuniary emolument which they bring. We have thus endeavoured to give our readers some slight sketch of the University and of its internal dealings with its own members. We shall consider in another article the local examinations which it holds, both for youths and young women, in various parts of the country. LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-XXV. LEAD (continued)-MERCURY-SILVER. DRY air has no action on lead; but if moisture be present, the bright surface of the metal is soon tarnished by a closely-adhering film of oxide. Lead, on account of its pliability, is much used for water-pipes and cisterns; but it should never be used for storing rain-water, for this is pure water containing air, and in such water the oxide of lead is soluble, rendering the liquid poisonous. Well-waters, containing nitrates and chlorides, act on lead, forming soluble salts, therefore they should not be brought in contact with it; but hard waters have little or no action on lead, for a thin deposit of sulphate or carbonate is formed on its surface, preserving it from further action. How ever, water charged with carbonic acid gas is capable of dissolving the lead carbonate to a dangerous extent. Lead is used in several alloys: shot is composed of lead, which is alloyed with a little arsenic, to render it hard and more easily granulated. The other important alloys have been mentioned. There are three oxides of lead. Plumbic oxide, or litharge (PbO), is a yellow powder formed when lead is heated in a current of air. It is soluble in caustic, potash, or soda; and if the solution be allowed to stand, carbonic acid is gradually absorbed from the air, the alkali rendered a carbonate, and the lead oxide deposited in transparent dodecahedral crystals. Litharge is capable of fusion, and then combines with glass, etc., forming fusible plumbic silicates. It is largely used as a flux, and for glazing earthenware. A solution of it in lime-water is prepared for a hair-dye. The lime partially decomposes the hair, when the lead with the sulphur in the hair forms lead sulphide, staining the hair black. Peroxide of Lead, or Plumbic Dioxide (PbO,), is a brown powder obtained by digesting red-lead in nitric acid. It can be decomposed by a high heat, becoming litharge, and giving off oxygen. With sulphuric acid a sulphate is formed, and oxygen comes off; with hydrochloric acid chlorine is evolved, and a plumbic chloride is made. Minium or Red Lead (PbO,PbO,) is a compound of the other two oxides; it is obtained by heating plumbic oxide or massicot, but not sufficiently to fuse it into litharge; it absorbs oxygen, and becomes bright red. Its chief use is in the manufacture of flint glass; it is also employed to colour inferior sealing-wax and in paper-staining. At a high temperature it parts with some of its oxygen and becomes litharge. Plumbic Carbonate, or White Lead (PbO,CO), is the well with lead oxide in several proportions; with 7 molecules of the oxide it forms Turner's yellow; with one molecule a white paint is produced, which is prepared by Bell of Newcastle. Cassel's yellow is still more basic. Iodide of Lead (PbI) falls as a beautiful yellow precipitate when an iodide is added to a lead solution. The other salts of lead afford nothing of peculiar interest, The oxalate is the most insoluble, and therefore its precipitate offers a good test for the presence of the metal. Besides the characteristics of these salts, already mentioned, lead may be reduced with ease on charcoal; thus its presence is by no means difficult to ascertain. Occasionally mercury is found native, disseminated in small globules through the rock. Its chief ore is cinnabar (mercuric sulphide). The extraction of the metal is simple, and is effected either by heating the ore in retorts, burning off the sulphur, and distilling the mercury; or by mixing the ore with some body like quicklime, with which the sulphur combines, the metal as before distilling off. Cinnabar is mined in many parts of the world: Almaden, in Spain, and Idria, in Carniola, are the most important European mines. The metal is imported into England in iron bottles. With most metals it forms amalgams; but the film of oxide, ever present on the surface of iron, prevents the amalgamation of the metals. At 40° it becomes a solid, crystallising in octahedra; at 350° it boils; but at all temperatures it seems to give off vapour. In the Torricellian vacuum, the space above the mercurial column in a barometer, globules of mercury may often be found condensed on the tube. Hydrochloric acid has no action upon it; with sulphuric acid a sulphate is formed, sulphurous acid coming of. The action with nitric acid is violent, nitrous acid gas being copiously evolved; when triturated with sulphur or iodine, it will unite with them. Its action on the human frame is serious, producing salivation; and the workmen are subject to "mercurial palsy," a peculiar form of nervous debility. Black Mercurous Oxide (Hg,O) and the Red Mercuric Oride (HgO) are the only oxides. The former is obtained by the action of potash on mercuric nitrate or on calomel. It is a darkgrey powder, and when heated is decomposed into metallic mercury and Red Mercuric Oxide.-This oxide may be prepared by heating the metal in the air to a temperature of 300°; but this process is slow, and the one generally adopted is the decomposition of mercuric nitrate by cautiously heating. In a state of fine subdivision it is yellow; such is the case when it is precipitated by potash from a solution of the nitrate. salt. Mercuric Sulphide (HgS) is the ore cinnabar, or vermilion. It is prepared artificially by heating together sulphur and 6 times its weight of mercury; the black mass thus formed is placed in tall earthen pots, the lower parts of which are redhot. The top is then closed, and after thirty-two hours the vessel is opened; the sublimation being complete, the vermilion is found deposited on the upper parts of the vessel. The sulphides correspond to the oxides. known paint; it may be obtained in a state of purity by pre-procured by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, or a mercurous Mercurous Sulphide (Hg,S) is a black powder, and may be cipitation from a solution of a plumbic salt by an alkaline carbonate. To procure it in large quantities, sheets of lead are exposed to the simultaneous action of acetic acid and carbonic acid. This is effected by placing the sheets rolled into cails in earthenware pots, at the bottom of which is some crude vinegar (acetic acid); these pots are packed in manure, from the fermentation of which the carbonic acid is supplied. The acetic acid, volatilised by the heat of the fermentation, attacks the metal oxidised by the air, forming acetate of lead (sugar of lead). The carbonic acid gradually displaces the acetic acid from its combination, and thus the plumbic carbonate is formed. Lead Sulphide (PbS).-Galena has been noticed as the chief ore of lead. Artificially, this compound may be produced by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of a lead salt. Dilute nitric acid causes this compound to deposit its sulphur; but if the acid be strong, both the lead and the sulphar are oxidised, forming a lead sulphate. Plumbic Chloride (PbCl2) is precipitated from a solution of the nitrate by the addition of sodium chloride. It combines Mercurous Chloride, or Calomel (Hg,Cl), is usually prepared by triturating 17 parts of corrosive sublimate, moistened with 13 parts of mercury, and then subliming. It is a white powder decomposed by the alkalies, but insoluble in water. It is largely used in medicine. Mercuric Chloride, or Corrosive Sublimate (HgCl), is formed when mercury burns in chlorine, or when mercurio oxide is dissolved in hydrochloric acid; it is usually prepared by subliming a The density of its vapour is 100, being an exception to the rule mixture of salt and mercuric sulphate. In this instance the action is 2NaCl + HgSO, = HgCl, + Na,SO.. It is also decomposed by the alkalies, but is soluble in water; = = Mercurous Iodide is a green powder, formed when any mercurons salt is acted on by potassium iodide; it easily decomposes, even by light, into Mercuric Iodide, which is a brilliant red colour, formed with mercuric salts and potassium iodide; it is soluble in an excess of the latter solution. The mercurous salts are distinguished from the mercuric salts by the addition of a chloride, when calomel falls. SILVER. SYMBOL, Ag-COMBINING WEIGHT, 108-SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 105. Silver, the most beautiful of the metals, is frequently, though not plentifully, met with in a native state; it is often combined with mercury, antimony, and gold; but usually is found as a sulphide, with the sulphur ores of lead, antimony, copper, and iron. The chief silver mines are those of Peru and Mexico; Kongsberg, in Norway; and Schnuberg, in Saxony. Argentic Sulphide (Ag,S) is found as the mineral "silver glance." Sulphuretted hydrogen precipitates it from a silver solution; it falls as a black powder. The presence of silver is easily detected by the precipitation of the chloride. Copper, zine, and iron precipitate metallic silver from its solutions; mercury produces the crystalline deposit, which is an amalgam, and is known as "arbor Diana." Phosphorus also becomes coated with silver when suspended in an argentic solution. Mercury, lead, and silver are distinguishable by the action of their chlorides with ammonia. The chloride of silver is soluble-that of lead insoluble; while the chloride of mercury is blackened. IN the Day-Book, which was given in our last lesson, all the The salts of mercury are readily recognised by the appear- transactions relating to the purchase and sale of the different ance of the metal when they are submitted to heat. kinds of Cotton have been entered as a primary record of these transactions; but if the merchant be desirous of keeping a distinct and separate account of his dealings in Cotton, in order to be able to tell at a glance what is actually in his Warehouse, or in Stock, as the phrase is, he will have a book similar to the following specially made for the purpose. In this book, the transactions can be more clearly and distinctly arranged; for he can have a separate account of each kind of cotton, with columns for the number of the bags, the net weight in pounds, the rate per pound, the prime cost, and the selling price; and he can appropriate the one side of the folio for the purchases, and the other side of the folio for the sales; so that the difference between them can be found in a moment, if necessary. particular kind of Cotton be all sold, then this book will show at once what has been gained or lost by the transactions in this kind; and as the same principle is applicable to all kinds, it follows that if all the Cotton of every kind has been sold, this book will show, both individually and collectively, the gain or loss on each, and the gain or loss on the whole. This is a great advantage where a merchant deals chiefly or wholly in any particular kinds of goods, as he can form an idea of his gain or loss on the principal part or the whole of his business accordingly without consulting his Ledger or striking a general balance. Its extraction from lead has been already noticed. electricity, and To liberate the metal from its ores the method of amalgama. tion is often resorted to, which consists in reducing the silver to the state of a chloride by roasting the crushed ore with salt; then it is placed in barrels of water with pieces of iron, which are made to revolve by this means. The iron becomes a chloride, and the metallic silver is liberated. Mercury is now added, with which the silver amalgamates. The mercury is then distilled off and the silver remains. The metal is the best conductor of heat and exhibits extraordinary ductility. Silver is largely used in the arts, but is then usually alloyed, to give it the requisite hardness for wear. Standard silver, of which coins are made, contains 7.5 per cent. of copper. Since it is capable of receiving the highest polish, it is much used for reflectors. When melted it possesses the remarkable property of absorbing oxygen from the air; this it liberates again on cooling, and hence the surface of a cooled mass is covered with bubbles, from which the oxygen has escaped. There is reason to believe that three oxides exist: the sub-oxide (Ag,O), the silver oxide (Ag2O), and the neutral peroxide (Ag2O,). The Silver Oxide (Ag2O) is precipitated as a brown powder when potash is added to a solution of argentine nitrate. If any It is evident that in any trade, business, or mercantile profession, such a book as this for every separate species of goods bought and sold would be of immense advantage, and would certainly be preferable to one book, such as the Day-Book, where all kinds of goods are indiscriminately classed together according to the dates of the different transactions; for the order of dates, though highly important, is not so useful to a merchant as the classification of his transactions; whilst even in that classification this order can be preserved. Hence a merchant may have his Sugar-Book, his Indigo-Book, his Tea-Book, his Coffee-Book, etc., according to the nature of his business; and in keeping books by Single Entry, which many persons yet mistakenly follow, such books as these are indispensably neces When this powder, freshly precipitated, is digested for some hours in ammonia, fulminating silver is the result, which must be carefully dried in small quantities on pieces of blotting-paper. Argentic Nitrate (AgNO,) is produced when the metal is dis-sary, inasmuch as the Ledger kept by Single Entry gives them solved in nitric acid. It may be obtained in tabular crystals; it is soluble in its own weight of cold water. When fused it is Fold as lanar caustic. With organic matter, in sunlight, it undergoes decomposition, staining the body with black suboxide. This property is the foundation of photography. Argentic Chloride (AgCl) falls as a white, curdy precipitate whenever a chloride is added to a silver solution : AgNO, NaCl = AgCl + Na,NO,. When heated strongly it melts; and when cool it is named hornsilver from its appearance. To reduce the silver from the chloride, it is only necessary to moisten it with dilute sulphuric acid, and place a piece of zinc in contact with it; a gradual transfer of the chlorine from the silver to the zinc takes place. In sunlight it changes colour, becoming purple, with a loss of chlorine. It is readily soluble in ammonia. Argentic Iodide (AgI) is the most sensitive to light of the silver salts; for this purpose the collodion of the photographer is iodised, so that when the plate is immersed in the bath of argentic nitrate, on its surface may be formed a film of iodide of silver. no information whatever as to the actual state of their Assets and Liabilities. If the book, such as the following, be devoted to one or more classes of goods, and each be kept separate and distinct, so that no confusion be introduced into the different transactions, it may be called legitimately the Stock or Warehouse Book, as the merchant can always tell his Stock of Goods by consulting it, without actually going to the warehouse and turning over the goods in order to see what he has got in hand. The following is the state of the Profit and Loss account, or the account of clear gain made by the purchase and sale of Cotton of different kinds from January to June, as per Cotton Book: |