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ledge we speak of must help us to use the shade tints in such a way that the muscles and bones which give the variety of surface may be exactly represented in accordance with the action and strength the parts exhibit.

The manner of using the pencil in shading has been already explained in Lesson XII. (Vol. I., page 359). The pupil must refer to this again, and continue the practice. It would be advisable to procure a ball about the size of a cricket-ball (this kind of ball, indeed, would answer the purpose), whitewash it, and when dry it will form an excellent model from which the practice of shading may be studied with advantage; for the ball exhibits every degree of light and shade, from the highest light to the darkest shadow, including the cast shadow upon the table or stand upon which it is placed. Figs. 141, 142, and 143 are given to illustrate the course to be pursued. After the outline has been made, if it should be black or heavy, faint it. A light outline is the best to proceed with in the shading. A black outline upon the edges of the shadow injures them very much; it destroys the harmony of tone, and, what is very objectionable, the eye is attracted by it. We are obliged to make use of a line to determine the extent of the part, and its subdivisions which contain the extent of tone or colour, and we must have no mean consideration of its importance, but as we proceed with the work, the line must be absorbed in the shadows. Nature shows no black outline but a limit; we draw the limits by clear faint lines, and complete the effect by shading. It must be borne in mind that we have only two means of distinguishing objects from one another-by light and shade, and by colour; consequently, when Nature begins to use black lines to mark her boundaries, we may. Mark in slightly, but with great care, the extent of the broad and cast shadows. In order to understand clearly the extent of these shadows, and to decide where the half-tint commences, and the depth and proportion of all other minor tones, the pupil must look at his copy or model for a moment or two with half-closed eyes; he will very soon see the advantage of doing so, as he will thereby be able to say which is decided shadow and which are the half-tints, and thus at once determine the proportion of tone he is to employ in representing them. The first stage will be to fill in the whole of the broad and cast shadows with one flat even tint, equal in tone to the reflections, as in Fig. 141; afterwards darken the greatest depth by crossing lines, lifting up the pencil as explained by Fig. 83, Lesson XII. (Vol. I., page 360); then lastly will be the semitones connecting the high lights and broad shadows, with all those minor tones found within the limits of the broad light, and caused by the varied surface of the object (Fig. 142). The stump mentioned in Lesson X. (Vol. I., page 295) may be used to lay on a flat and moderate tint over the parts intended for the broad and cast shadows; afterwards work over the shadows with the point in the line manner. The use of the stump must be restricted to the shadows named until the pupil has acquired confidence in handling it, and then he will find himself capable of employing it for the darkest of the minor tones, but in this he must be guided by his own judgment, resulting from experience. Perhaps some of our pupils may be unable readily to procure a stamp; we will show them how to make one. Cut some thick coarse grey packing-paper to the shape of Fig. 144, according to the dimensions there given; and then roll it closely up, beginning at the broader end, and terminating with ab. If the stump be well made it will be very hard and tight, ending in a point at both ends. Put a little gum on the end a b, and press it down upon the body of the stump; it will then be fit for use, as follows:-Take a piece of hard strong paper, and cover a portion of it with a BB pencil until it is quite black; then rub the end of the stump on the blackened paper, and tone down the shadows with it as evenly as possible. Another hint with regard to the outline. It frequently happens that, by repeated alterations, the surface of the paper loses its firmness and becomes dirty, so that, when shading upon it, it is very difficult to make a clean and bright drawing; therefore finish the outline regardless of the paper, and trace it upon a clean piece to receive the shading. The tracing-paper may be made by rubbing a dark and soft pencil upon half a sheet of foolscap. Place the clean paper to receive the shaded drawing upon a drawing-board; upon this place the tracing-paper laid upon its face downwards; and lastly, the finished outline upon that; pin them down at one end, and then, with a hard point, firmly press over the outline, which will be printed upon the clean

sheet from the blackened paper; this traced outline will then be ready for shading.

Until the pupil has had some considerable practice, he will find that his greatest difficulty does not consist in making an even tint, as all defects can be remedied by stippling—that is, by carefully filling up the lighter or uneven parts with the point only; but it consists in uniting the extreme lights with the decided shadows by semitones, which are liable to appear dirty, and require a very careful and delicate hand to treat them properly.

To sum up, we have in these lessons taken up the three leading divisions of art-still life, landscape, and figure-and have endeavoured to give the necessary instructions which are generally applicable to all, at the same time paying due regard to particulars which belong to and sustain the individual character of each subject as it comes before us. Our pupils will have discovered that the leading principles of art are universal, that they are not confined to one particular branch to the exclusion of others; but from the moment we take up the pencil to commence the outline, the essential beginning of every subject, we start upon principles which are absolute, and which must have their influence in directing us. This refers to the drawing or outline preparatory to filling it in with light and shade or colour. There is no necessity to repeat the cautions we have given, or the necessary process of execution, when engaged in this most difficult and most important part of the work. Our efforts should be to acquire a bold and unhesitating manner of drawing; this can only be done by a thorough knowledge of the subject and close observation, combined with patience and perseverance. A bold, free style is frequently understood to be a rapid dashing manner, a fatal mistake in hundreds of cases where study and experience have had but little influence. Bold drawing is done with few lines and seemingly little effort, in a quiet, deliberate, and steady manner, producing a resemblance which is recognised, felt, and admired by all who are interested in it. Success of this kind is not altogether the result of manual practice, the mind has the most to do with it; the knowledge of things in general, of facts relating to natural history, manners and customs, and the character and construction of the object we are representing, are the greatest means of help we can obtain. A mind thus thoroughly instructed will have much less difficulty in guiding the hand than when it is dependent upon manual practice only; because, if the mind can fully comprehend that which has to be done, and can within itself see the result, the hand well practised in the manner of wielding the pencil will at once be guided by its influence, doubts and speculations will be few, and the result satisfactory. It is not at all uncommon to meet with the case of a draughtsman or artist satisfied with a picture, at which a man with an accomplished mind only smiles. Why is it? Simply because the painter has depended more upon his hand than his judgment, or that his mind is incapable of receiving those more important lessons from Nature which elevate art and make it valuable. Of course we feel we are addressing those who cannot remain satisfied with bare imitation, whose desire is to do something more, and picture the life as well as the form. The instructions necessary for imitation only are very simple, and can soon be explained, and we trust we have not failed to do so; but beyond that point the sources of instruction are infinite, as every object has something to reveal concerning itself, and the artist must not fail to listen to it.

We will conclude with a passage from one of the lectures of Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivered to the students at the Royal Academy: :-"There is one precept," he observes, "in which I shall be opposed only by the vain, the ignorant, and the idle. I am not afraid that I shall repeat it too often. You must have no dependence on your own genius. If you have talents, industry will improve them; if you have moderate abilities, industry will supply their deficiency. Nothing is denied to well-directed labour; nothing is to be obtained without it. Not to enter into metaphysical discussions on the nature or essence of genius, I will venture to assert that assiduity, unabated by difficulties, and a disposition eagerly directed to the object of its pursuit, will produce effects similar to those which some call the result of natural powers. Though a man cannot at all times, and in all places, paint or draw, yet the mind can prepare itself by laying in proper materials, at all times and in all places."

LESSONS IN GERMAN.-XXXVII.
SECTION LXXII.-PASSIVE VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
(§ 85.)
VOCABULARY.

Ab'brechen, tobreak off, | Dafür' halten, to be of

crop, pluck. Auffallend, startling, striking, remarkable. Aus'rufen, to call out. Aeußerc, n. countenance, exterior. Befürchten, to fear, apprehend. Begnatigen, to pardon, favour. Beißen, to bite. Besa'tung, f. garri

son.

Beste'chung, f. corrup tion, bribery. Cartha'go,n.Carthage.

opinion, to deem.
Dar'bieten, to present,
offer.

Ehren, to honour, re-
spect, esteem.
Gin'nehmen, to occupy,
take possession of.
Fort'schleppen, to drag,
pull along.
Graben, to dig, grub,

ditch.

Griechisch, Greek, Hel-
lenic.
Hinterge'hen, to de-

Klagen, to complain,
lament.

Lösen, to solve, un-
riddle.
Dra'fel, n. oracle.
Räthsel,n. riddle,enig-

ma.

Spiel, n. game, play.
Troja, n. Troy.
lle'bermaß, n. excess,
superfluity.

lle brigens, as for the
rest, besides.
Verkündigen, to an-

ich dafür, daß Garthago zerstört werden muß. 21. Man vermuthet, die Festung sei von den Feinden eingenommen worden, allein die Besaßung werte begnadigt worden sein. 22. Der Jüngling sagte, es werde noch Vicles von ihm gethan werden. 23. Der betrübte Bater glaubt, sein Sohn werte von dem erbitterten Feinte erschossen worden sein. 24. Die Freundin behauptete, daß das Unglück durch die Schuld des Nachbars herbeigeführt worden wäre. 25. Der Arme klagte, daß er gewaltsam fortgeschleppt worden wäre.

EXERCISE 139.

1. It was said that everybody would love those children. It was said those children would be loved by everybody. 2. The teacher believes that the scholars could have learned their exercise. The teacher believes that the exercise could have been

-

learned by the scholars. 3. The gardener said he would dig tomorrow in the garden. = The gardener said it would be dug by him to-morrow in the garden. 4. We wish that you may love and esteem your friends. We wish that your friends may be loved and esteemed by you. 5. We believed not that we should ever have been praised by our teachers, and that we should have satisfied them in everything. 6. It is impossible that you could have received the intelligence before us, except it might have been communicated to you by telegraph. 7. How is it possible that this undertaking could have been finished by you? 8. We doubt very much that we can ever be rewarded for our troubles, and that the promises can ever be fulfilled. 9. How could it be He would not allow that that possible that that people was governed badly, when it had so wise and good a prince? 10. The poor slave complained that he had been forcibly dragged along, and in the excess of his grief he cried out, Oh, that I had never been born!"

ceive, delude. Hirsch, m. stag, hart, deer.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

Er wollte nicht erlauben, daß jener
Mann ge'rufen werte.

Sie hatten verge'bens gehofft', daß
die vielen kleinen Her'zogthümer in
Provinzen ein'getheilt würten.
Man glaubt, daß bei diesem leßten
Sturme viele Schiffe verschla'gen
worden seien.

Er erzähl'te mir, daß meine Ab'hand.
lungen über diesen Ge'genstand
sehr gelobt' worden wären.

Da die fürstliche Familie ge'gen.
wärtig ist, so vermu’thet man, daß
diesen Abend ein großes Concert'
werte gege'ben werten.
Ich hoffe, daß in kurzer Zeit alle
Hin'dernisse von ihm werten über-
wun'den worden sein.

nounce, predict. Vermuthen, to suppose, presume, think.

man should be called.

They had vainly hoped that the
many little dukedoms would
be divided into provinces.
It is supposed that, by this late
(last) storm, many vessels

have been cast away.
He told (Sect. LXXXII. 1) me
that my dissertations con-
cerning this affair had been
very much lauded.
Since the princely family is
present, it is conjectured
that a great concert will be
given this evening.

I hope that in (a) short time
all hindrances will have been
surmounted by him.

EXERCISE 138.

1. Es wird gesagt, daß der Schauspieler eine Vorstellung gebe. = E8 wird gesagt, daß eine Vorstellung von dem Schauspieler gegeben werde. 2. Der Nachbar glaubt, daß der Knabe seine Eltern täusche. = Der Nachbar glaubt, daß die Eltern von dem Knaben getäuscht werden. 3. Die Kinter sagten, der Jäger schösse den Hirsch, = Die Kinter sagten, der Hirsch würte von dem Jäger geschossen. 4. Man befürchtet, der Hund beiße die Leute.= Man befürchtet, die Leute würden von dem Hunde gebissen. 5. Man vermuthet, der Freund habe den Freund hintergangen. = Man vermuthet, der Freund sei vom Freunde hintergangen worden. 6. Der Vater meinte, daß die Kinder das Stück gesvielt hätten. = - Der Vater meinte, daß das Stück von den Kindern gespielt worden wäre. 7. Er erzählte mir, daß die Märchen die Blumen in seinem Garten abgebrochen hätten. = Er er zählte mir, daß die Blumen in seinem Garten von den Märchen wären abgebrochen worden. 8. Der alte Soltat rief aus, daß er seinen Feldherrn nie vergessen werde. Der alte Soldat rief aus, daß sein Feldherr nie von ihm werde vergessen werden. 9. Die Mutter sagte, sie werde diesen Nachmittag im Garten graben. Die Mutter sagte, es werde diesen Nachmittag im Garten von ihr gegraben werken. 10. Ich möchte wissen, ob Sie ihn würden geehrt haben. = Ich möchte wissen, ob er von Ihnen würde geehrt worden sein. 11. 3ch dachte nicht anders, als daß er das Spiel werde gewonnen haben. = Ich dachte nicht anders, als daß das Spiel von ihm werte gewonnen worden sein. Das Orakel verkündigte ihm, er werte siegen. 13. Er sagte mir, er werde von Jedermann geliebt und geachtet. 14. Er behauptet, das Räthsel sei durch ihn gelöst worden. 15. Die Geschichte melvet, daß Troja von den griechischen Fürsten zerstört worden sei. 16. Er sagte ihm, er würde seinet wegen (Sect. LXXIII. 1) Alles zu thun bereit sein. 17. Der Freund be. Elagte sich, daß er so wenig von mir besucht würde. 18. Man sagt, Ungarn sei durch Bestechung, nicht durch Gewalt der Waffen besiegt worden. Mein Nachbar sagte mir, das Aeußere dieses Mannes böte nichts Auffallendes dar, aber seine Seele wäre geziert durch eine Menge trefflicher Eigenschaften. 20. Der alte Cato schloß eine jede Rede mit den Worten: Uebrigens halte

12.

19.

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SECTION LXXIII.-IDIOMS OF PREPOSITIONS. The preposition wegen is often compounded with the genitive of personal pronouns [§ 57. (2)], which in this connection substitute t or et for the final r; as:-Meinetwegen (instead of meiner wegen), on my account, for my sake (literally, on account of me). Seinetwegen nur bin ich gekommen, on his account only have I come. 1. The preposition u is often used after certain verbs (as, machen, werten, wählen, etc.) to mark the result of an action, or the end or destination of a thing; as-Sie haben ihn zum Seint gemacht, you have made him (to) an enemy, or, you made an enemy of him. Das Eis wird zu Wasser, the ice becomes (to) water. wählten ihn zum Kaiser, they elected him (to the) emperor.

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1. Wissen Sie nicht, an was für einer Krankheit Ihre Nichte gestorben if? 2. So viel ich gehört habe, ist sie an der Auszehrung gestorben. 3. Biele sind in diesem Jahre an der Ghelera gestorben. 4. Weiß man nicht, wer die filbernen Löffel gestohlen hat? 5. Nein, aber man hat Verdacht auf einen Petienten des Hauses. 6. Man hatte zuerst eine alte Auf är terin im Verdachte. 7. Er hat mich im Verdachte, ihn vorsäßlich beleidigt ju baben. 8. Ich weiß wirklich nicht, auf wen ich meinen Verdacht werfen, und worauf ich ihn stüßen soll. 9. Nachdem ich mich angekleidet, und nachdem ich gefrühstückt haben werde, will ich ihn besuchen. 10. Nach rem er zu Mittag gespeist hatte, las er die Zeitung. 11. Nachdem er sich gebatet hatte, machte er einen Sraziergang. 12. Nach zehn Uhr res Thenks besuchte er mich noch. 13. Nach Mitternacht werten wir unsere Reise weiter fortsehen. 14. Es giebt Menschen, welche nach diesem Leben lein anteres erwarten. 15. Ich freue mich seinetwegen mehr, als meinet, wegen. 16. Jbretwegen habe ich tie Reife unternommen. 17. Guret wegen ist der Vater so betrübt. 18. Unsertwegen brauchen Sie sich nicht zu fbamen. 19. Mein Bruder war seiner selbst nicht mehr mächtig. 20. Hast Du Herrn N. selbst, oder seine Frau gesehen? 21. Ich habe ihn selbst nicht nur gesehen, sondern auch gesprochen. 22. Ein treuer Soldat stirbt lieber, als daß er zum Verräther wird.

EXERCISE 141.

1. Are we obliged to wait for our friend? 2. No, not on his account. 3. This man is detested on account of his perfidy. 4. Do not grieve on account of us! 5. On my account you may do what you like. 6. My brother died of consumption in the mineteenth year of his age. 7. Do you know who has stolen your gold watch? 8. No, but I am suspicious of that man who came to our house yesterday. 9. At first I suspected a servant of the house. 10. After I had performed my last voyage, I applied myself to the study of the living languages. 11. After we had dined, we took an airing on horseback. 12. After he had breakfasted, he visited his brother-in-law. 13. This lady wants eighteen ells of muslin for a dress. 14. That youth became a doctor. 15. That speculation made our neighbour a rich man. 16. He told me he should on his own account speak

to his father.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN.

EXERCISE 72 (Vol. I., page 324).

1. It is questionable whether we shall have fine weather to-morrow. 2. It is proper to keep holy the Sabbath. 3. It is proper to esteem older people. 4. One works more joyfully when one has the consciousness that one is doing something good. 5. It is not proper to decline the invitation. 6. The really prudent man will labour to adapt himself as much as possible to the times. 7. It affords great pleasure to further what is good. 8. It is proper that every foreigner should adopt the good, but not the evil customs of a people. 9. This man's wealth increases visibly. 10. It is not proper for children to be disobedient. 11. It is questionable whether this man has done his duty. 12. It sometimes happens that the considerations connected with a sportive occurrence are very serious. 13. It often happens that small circumstances occasion great events. 14. Who has met you this morning? 15. My friend the captain has met me. 16. Did anything disagreeable happen to him on his last journey? 17. Yes, a great misfortune befell him. 18. What has happened to you? 19. Nothing has happened to me. 20. This punishment serves him right.

EXERCISE 73 (Vol. I., page 324).

1. Es gehört sich, daß Kinter ihre Eltern achten. 2. Es schickt sich nicht für einen weisen Mann, der Menge zu folgen. 3. Die meisten jungen Leute wünschen groß in der Welt zu scheinen. 4. Sie sollten unter allen Umständen die Wahrheit sagen. 5. Es frägt sich, ob wir Ihre Ein latung annehmen werden. 6. Es frägt sich, ob Sie Recht over Unrecht baben 7. Gs trägt sich zuweilen zu, daß der beste Mensch irrt. 8. Die Regierung fortert Gehorsam von ihren Unterthanen. 9. Die Bevölkerung Lontons nimmt jedes Jahr ungeheuer zu. 10. Mein Bruder widmete sich mebr den Wissenschaften, als dem Vergnügen. 11. Wissen Sie, wie weit Ihr Freund Ihnen gerathen hat? 12. Er hat Ihnen gerathen das zu thun, woven er gestern sprach.

EXERCISE 74 (Vol. I., page 324).

1. What is that servant gone for? 2. She is getting water at the well, wood from the forest, and meat from the market. 3. Has she already gone for my trunk at the railway station? 4. Yes, she went for it directly after she got up. 5. We sent for a physician for the sick man. 6. He got me to copy the letter, and then to carry it to the post. 7. I neglect nothing to bring your son to a better course. 8. Let us not be deluded by this event. 9. One should suffer the dead to

rest. 10. He kept me waiting, although I was in a hurry. 11. Why did you not let your little brother come?

12. Because he was all the afternoon at school. 13. Do you let your children learn French? 14. No, because I consider the English language more useful, 15. The major ordered his servant to show me the way to the village. 16. The gentleman whom you ask for had the captain driven into the country. 17. For whom do you send for the books? 18. I send for them for my youngest sister, in order to teach her Italian. 19. He had me invited to travel with him next week.

EXERCISE 75 (Vol. I., page 324).

1. Welchen von diesen Aerzten werten Sie holen lassen ? 2. Ich werde keinen von Beiten holen lassen. 3. Laß mich zufrieden, denn ich bin nicht wohl. 4. Nur feige Soldaten lassen ihren Anführer im Stiche. 5. Warum 6. Sie konnte nicht, denn licßen Sie Ihre kleine Schwester nicht kommen? sie war ten ganzen Mergen in der Schule. 7. Er hat einen Zahnarzt holen lassen, um einen Zahn herauszuziehen. 8. Was lassen Sie Ihr Dienstmädchen holen? 9. Ich lasse sie Papier und Dinte holen. 10. Laßt uns menschlich handeln. 11. Laßt uns doch nach der Schule gehen. 12. Laßt uns nicht den Beispielen der Gottlosen folgen.

EXERCISE 76 (Vol. I., page 347).

1. What kind of weather is it to-day ? 2. It is beautiful weather to

day, but it is somewhat colder than yesterday. 3. What opinion does he entertain concerning this thing? 4. His opinion of it is not the best. 5. My society is for him the most agreeable in the world. 6.

What kind of fish are these? 7. They are sea-fish. 8. In what kind of work does he occupy himself? 9. He occupies himself partly in writing, partly in reading. 10. What a power music has over the mind of man! 11. What a great delight it is to see the world! 12. What a glorious aspect the firmament, with its innumerable stars, presents! 13. Every star in the heavens forms a world of its own. 14. The really virtuous man devotes every day of his life to laying aside his faults more and more. 15. Has not every one of your friends such a hat? order to save their native land. 16. No, every one has a different one. 17. Such men are necessary, in 18. Have you seen that blind man who possesses a delicacy of touch, which is astonishing? 19. Yes, I have seen him. 20. The giver of such a gift is to be praised. 21. The hardships of such a journey strengthen the body. 22. Such actions will call forth the admiration of posterity. 23. I have not had such agreeable hours for a long time. 24. Among the inhabitants there are many very opulent. 25. Have you not too lived to see many strange things? 26. O yes, I have already seen many remarkable things. 27. Many a brave soldier had to lose his life in the battle. 28. Has not this author written many good works? 29. Certainly, many of them are excellent. 30. Have both friends come to an understanding about this thing? 31. Yes, in some points they have agreed with one another. 32. Some English ships were sunk in this storm. 33. A few prudent men retired from the meeting. 34. All the inhabitants of the town fled at the enemy's approach. 35. Many persons pass their whole life in idleness. 36. Was that your brother who was the whole of yesterday in your society? 37. No, it was my nephew, who visits me once every year. 38. What a magnitude the earth has, and how much smaller, notwithstanding, is it than the sun! 39. What advantages has man over the beast? 40. What bird's feather is this? 41. If the scholar is industrious, he learns something.

EXERCISE 77 (Vol. I., page 347).

1. Mancher Gelehrte ist mißiverstanden worden. 2. O, was für Thorheiten begeht der Mensch in seinem Leben! 3. Mit was für Gesellschaft hatten Sie Umgang? 4. Manch fleißiger Kaufmann ist durch eine unvorsichtige Speculation zu Grunde gerichtet worden. 5. Manche Blume ist geboren, im Verborgenen zu blühen. 6. Jedes Blatt, jeder Zweig, und jeder Tropfen Wasser zeugen von unendlicher Weisheit und Macht. 7. Jeder muß Rechenschaft von sich selbst geben. 8. Die ganze Umgegend von Goblenz ist romantisch. 9. Alle sind wohl zu Hause. 10. Die Unterhaltung mit solchen Menschen ist belehrend. 11. Ich habe nie von solch einem Unglücke gehört. 12. Gs ist heute schönes Wetter, aber etwas kälter als gestern. 13. Ich habe schon manche Freure gehabt. 14. Ich wünsche einige Citronen zu haben. 15. Er kam etwas zu spät.

EXERCISE 78 (Vol. I., page 382).

1. He defended himself with an umbrella instead of a stick. 2. Instead of going with friends, he was always in the society of strangers. 3. They had a great chest in the room instead of a bed. 4. In Ger

many they are very polite to foreigners. 5. The roots of the forest were his only nourishment. 6. Water, on this occasion, took the place of wine. 7. A scholar has taken the place of teacher. 8. They use pencils instead of pens. 9. Travelling gives me very much pleasure. 10. My children have learnt writing and reading of me. 11. Let us go; this long waiting is disagreeable to me. 12. They generally prefer sitting to standing. 13. He learnt to labour in his youth. 14. We learnt to write together. 15. I hate writing; on the contrary, I like painting so much the more. 16. He understands drawing better than painting. 17. We heard the bells pealing and the cannons thundering. 18. The howling of the storm, and the wild raging of the waves, heightened still further the courage of the brave captain and his crew, instead of depressing it. 19. Thinking God more benevolent than just, is equivalent to dishonouring him (Gellert). 20. This scholar's inexcusable behaviour vexed the teacher.

LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-XV. SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS. SULPHUR:-SYMBOL, S-ATOMIC WEIGHT, 32-DENSITY OF VAPOUR AT 1,000° CENT., 32.

SULPHUR is a yellow solid which is found mixed with the soil in many volcanic districts. It also appears in combination with metals forming a large class of ores named sulphides; and moreover it takes some part in the animal economy, for it is found in albumen, hair, garlic, etc. The localities from which the greater part of the sulphur of commerce is procured are the valleys of Noto and Mazzaro, in Sicily. Here it is mixed with clays and breccia. Some sulphur is derived from metallic sulphides, particularly iron pyrites, FeS,, but this is liable to contain arsenic. The pyrites is heated in conical clay tubes, FeS remains behind, while the other atom of sulphur is liberated. The Sicilian sulphur undergoes partial purification at the mines by being submitted to a rough sublimation that is, when heated to 490° Cent. the sulphur begins to boil, and to come off in vapour. This is passed into a chamber in which it is cooled, the vapour condensing into a fine yellow powder flowers of sulphur. Sometimes the melted sulphur is run into wooden moulds, by which it is converted into cane sulphur, or

brimstone.

Properties.-Sulphur is a brittle solid without taste or smell. When rubbed it emits a peculiar odour, and becomes negatively electrified. It is a very bad conductor of heat, and when a stick of brimstone is held in the hand in contact with the ear it crackles and frequently falls to pieces from the unequal expansion. It is quite insoluble in water, as may be easily seen by examining a piece of brimstone which has been for years in a vessel of water from which a lady's lap-dog drinks. The edges of the roll will be found as sharp as the day when it was first put into the water. Alcohol and ether have but a slight solvent action upon it, but the bisulphide of carbon, CS,, dissolves it freely. Sulphur exists in three modifications. The sulphur which appears in nature when crystallised, is in rhombic octohedra. This same shape is assumed when the bisulphide of carbon, which holds sulphur in solution, is evaporated. These latter crystals, however, are transparent. To procure the second modification, sulphur is melted, and when it is covered with a film on cooling, a hole is broken through the crust, and the sulphur which is still liquid is poured out; the under surface of the film and the sides of the crucible will be found covered with long needleshaped transparent crystals belonging to the oblique prismatic form, and having a specific gravity of 1.98, whereas that of the native sulphur is 2:07. These crystals soon become opaque, and when touched crumble into powder, the particles of which are found to be crystals similar to those of native sulphur. Thus sulphur is "dimorphous," or capable of crystallising in two different systems. The third and more remarkable variety is produced by heat. At 115° sulphur begins to melt, forming a pale yellow mobile liquid. Upon raising the temperature its colour becomes darker, and at 250° it is an opaque mass, so viscid as to be poured from the vessel with difficulty; 20° higher it again resumes its fluid condition, and if it be poured into cold water when in this state, it becomes a soft and plastic mass of an amber-brown colour, and so tenacious that it can be drawn out into fine threads. It is in this condition that casts of medals, etc., are taken for electro-plating. After a lapse of soree time it returns to its yellow colour. In passing from one of these conditions to another, there is invariably a remarkable alteration in temperature.

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by hermetically sealing its neck. Of course, when exposed to the air, the liquid evaporates rapidly, and by this means a temperature of 60° Cent. may be obtained. This experiment may be easily shown by wrapping the bulb of an alcohol thermometer in muslin and pouring some of the liquid upon it.

Sulphurous acid possesses great bleaching powers, and also antiseptic properties. If a red rose be held over the fumes of ignited sulphur its colour will be immediately changed. Chlorine cannot be used in bleaching silk, wool, and especially straw, as it

leaves them with a yellowish tinge. In these cases this gas is used. It seems simply to combine with the colouring matter, thus bleaching it. The gas is sometimes used for checking vinous fermentation when it is proceeding too rapidly. This is done in the manufacture of cider, by burning sulphur over the vessel in which the fermentation is proceeding.

Sulphuric Trioxide (symbol, SO,; combining weight, 80; density, 40).-This substance may be prepared by passing a mixture of sulphurous acid gas and oxygen through a tube containing spongy platinum heated to 180° Cent. In the pores of the platinum the sulphurous gas becomes oxidised into SO,, which passes out of the tube in white vapours, and condenses in a receiver into fine silky needles.

This substance possesses no acid properties until it combines with water, which it does with violence, forming sulphuric acid. When the vapour of sulphuric trioxide is passed through a red-hot tube it is decomposed into 2 volumes of sulphic dioxide and 1 of oxygen, thusSo, =SO + 0.

2 = 2 + 1.

Nordhausen Sulphuric Acid (H,O.2SO3).-At Nordhausen, a town in Saxony, a fuming acid of the above name and formula, has long been made by distilling green vitriol, which is iron sulphate, thus

4 (FeSO.) + H2O = 280, +2Fe,0, + H2O.2SO..

be bluish (Marsh's test). One of the oxides of nitrogen is generally present-this may be ascertained by the test given for nitric acid. The presence of other salts may be determined by evapo

Fig. 47.

rating some of the acid in a platinum crucible; if any be present, they will remain.

Properties. This acid forms sulphates. It has a great affinity for water, of which it can take up fifteen times its weight if exposed long enough to the atmosphere. In combining with water, the temperature is greatly increased, and the

This acid, when heated, gives off sulphuric anhydride, and volume of the mixed liquids is less than the sum of their leaves British oil of vitriol behind, thus:

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The mode of preparing the acid is to oxidise sulphurous acid gas, by means of nitric trioxide, thus

SO, H2O + N ̧0, = H2SO.+N2O2.

Here it will be seen that the nitric trioxide gives one atom of its oxygen to the SO,, which thus becomes SO,; this combines with an atom of water, forming H2OSO,, which is usually written H.SO.. The N2O, is now NO,, nitric oxide; but in the presence of steam this gas is capable of combining with oxygen and returning to its former state, thus

N,0, +0 = Ng,;

Theo

and it is again in a condition to oxidise another atom of SO,. Thus it appears that the nitric trioxide merely acts as a carrier of oxygen between the air and the sulphurous acid gas. retically, a definite quantity of the trioxide can transform an indefinite quantity of the sulphurous into sulphuric acid. Practically, however, this is impossible, for reasons which will be sufficiently apparent. Fig. 47 shows the arrangement by which the manufacture of sulphuric acid is carried on. A chamber made of wood, sometimes 300 feet long and 15 broad by 15 high, is lined with sheet lead; water a few inches in depth covers the bottom; at one end there is a furnace in which sulphur is burning, and the flames of the sulphur heat a crucible containing sodium nitrate and sulphuric acid, which produce the fumes of nitric acid; at the other end is a boiler in which large quantities of steam are generated, and ejected into the chamber by means of pipes. There is an opening at F to admit air and produce a current through the chamber; sometimes, thoroughly to mix the various vapours, several partitions divide the chamber, having their openings alternately at the top and near the floor. The SO, as soon as formed fails and combines with the water; this process generally proceeds until the acid reaches a density of 1:50. This is removed from the chamber and boiled in shallow leaden pans; when it reaches a density of 1.750 it corrodes the lead, and therefore a further condensation is carried on in platinuin vessels. The oil of vitriol of commerce is generally impure, containing lead sulphate, as well as sulphates of any bases, lime, ec., which the water may contain, and if the acid has been made from iron pyrites, which is the case with all English acid, it is sure to contain arsenic. To decide if this be the case, develop hydrogen with the acid, ignite it, and the flame will

volumes. The maximum condensation, 3 per cent., is reached when 3 volumes of acid are mixed with 2 of water. The best test for sulphuric acid is barytic water, or a chloride or nitrate of barium; the barium displaces any other base from its combination with the acid, and forms the insoluble barium sulphate, which falls in a white powder; thus

CaSO, BaNO, = CaNO, + BaSO.. The remaining five oxides of sulphur are not of sufficient interest to require a notice here.

COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR AND HYDROGEN.

Sulphuretted Hydrogen, or Hydric Sulphide (Symbol, H2S; combining weight, 34; density, 17).-This gas is always procured by treating some metallic sulphide with sulphuric acid. The sulphide of iron may be conveniently made by heating a rod of iron, such as that from which nails are made, to a strong red heat, then touching it with a stick of brimstone; the sulphur and the iron combine, forming ferric sulphide, FeS. In the same bottle in which hydrogen or carbonic acid gas was made, place this sulphide, and add diluted sulphuric acid

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The gas is very poisonous, but when largely diluted with air, it acts as a powerful narcotic.

It burns with a feebly luminous flame into water and sulphurous acid, a quantity of sulphur being deposited in the jar from incomplete combustion. Water, at ordinary temperatures, absorbs three volumes of the gas, and in this manner it may be kept for laboratory purposes; only oxygen must be excluded, for otherwise the hydrogen will be separated to form water and the sulphur deposited. This solution reddens litmus, and is therefore sometimes called hydro-sulphuric acid; whenever an oxide of a metal is presented to it, the metal becomes a sulphide, and the hydrogen of the gas with the oxygen forms water, thus:

CuO + H,S CuS + H2O.

From the variety of colours which sulphides exhibit, and their behaviour under certain circumstances, this gas becomes a valuable test agent. By consulting the following table the tests

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