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that runs forsaken in the street. 13. If the prince were grieved for the people, he would govern differently. 14. But the people will still reward him for it, and then not spare him. 15. It would be indeed worth while to travel to California. 16. I should like to spare these clothes, if I had others. 17. I wish to die no other death than the death of decrepitude. 18. Do not forget my words. 19. Forget

called " primary," or rocks first formed. They are supposed, as stated in the last lesson, to be the cooled product of the molten mass of which the earth was composed when it condensed from the "fire-cloud." However, it is but right to state that much diversity of opinion has existed concerning their origin, the pains that have been endured, but forget not the pleasures enjoyed. in a future lesson on the Primary Rocks. whether they ever were fused. This question will be alluded to

20. If the princes could, they would spare neither the liberty nor any one right of their people.

EXERCISE 89 (Vol. II., page 27).

1. Sie pflegte ihres Vaters in seinem Alter und pflegte mich, da ich das Nervenfieber hatte. 2. Er spottete meiner, und bemerkte nicht, wie die Menschen über ihn spotteten. 3. Hat er mein Geschenk angenommen? 4. Nein, er sagte mir, er bedürfe dieses Geschenkes nicht. 5. Erwähnen Sie nicht seiner Güte. 6. Der Lehrer darf der Nachlässigkeit und Unwahrheit seiner Schüler nicht schonen, sondern muß sie strenge verweisen, wenn er jene wahrnimmt. 7. Vergeßt nicht die warnende Stimme eurer Eltern. 8. Gedenke des Sabbaths. 9. Wer kann einem Menschen glauben, der über alles spöttelt, und der Jedermanns spottet. 10. Wir erwarteten mit Sehnsucht die Ankunft unserer Freunde. 11. Wenn du deine Fehler bereueft, dann werde ich mich deiner mit Freuden erinnern. 12. Gewissenhafte Leute halten keine eiteln Reden, noch brüsten sie sich mit Eigenschaften, welche sie nicht besigen.

EXERCISE 90 (Vol. II., page 62).

The products of volcanoes, which are frequently found embedded in stratified rocks, are termed Plutonic, to distinguish

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them from the members of the primary groups, which do not seem to have been the result of volcanic action, but are due to a much more universal agency.

The various positions in which rock strata appear, the mode in which the all but universal disturbance of strata has occurred, 1. I am unaccustomed to such work, and should not do it if I were and the manner in which igneous rocks-primary and Plutonic not in want of money. 2. I am in want of a great sum of money; do-have been injected through the strata, as well as the explana help me, I am certainly not unworthy of your assistance. 3. If he were mindful of my kindness, he would not act so. 4. This man is so bad, that I consider him capable of any action. 5. Do you think the covetous man can enjoy his life? 6. I shall really be willing to confess

my deed, only let me go! 7. The hunter was so sure of his prey, that he spent the price of the bear's skin in drink, before he had shot him. 8. Let me go now, I am heartily tired of your gossip. 9. Well, if you are tired of me, I will go. 10. Never will I be guilty of a deed which would render me unworthy of your friendship. 11. I possess a farm, but being unaccustomed to working, and unacquainted with agriculture, I am tired of it. 12. One is worthy of the other, but one is also often unworthy of the other. 13. A king who does not love his people is unworthy of the throne. 14. Although you suspect me of the deed, still I cannot confess it, because I have not committed it. 15. If men were always mindful of death, they would not so often be guilty of wicked deeds. 16. Help thy neighbour, and ask not if he is worthy of thy help, when he is in want of it. 17. I will accompany you, for I am acquainted with the road, and see you are unacquainted with it. 18. I thank you, sir, I am not in want of your service; for as I am tired of walking and weary of riding, I shall remain here. 19. In America, what does the man do who is not accustomed to any kind of work? 20. He must become accustomed to work, and be mindful of the adage-" He who does not work shall not eat."

LESSONS IN GEOLOGY.—II. STRATIFIED ROCKS-UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS STRATA-DEPOSITION OF STRATA-DIP OF STRATA-CLINOMETER.

A VERY casual acquaintance with the appearance of the rocks which compose the surface of the earth will be sufficient to induce the observer to divide them into rocks stratified and unstratified. Stratified rocks-as the derivation of the word indicates (stratum, "that which is spread out")-have the appearance of having been laid in layers one above the other. Sometimes these layers are horizontal and perfectly flat. This is notably the case in the vast plains of Russia, where some of the very earliest deposited rocks-the Silurians have retained the position in which they were formed for ages, notwithstanding the repeated and often violent changes which have in other regions affected the earth's crust. Most frequently, however, the strata exhibit flexures, and are more or less inclined to the horizon; in some cases-as in the coal measures in the Mendip Hills, in Somersetshire-they are even vertical, and instances are not wanting in which they have been absolutely turned over. Abundant evidence is given to show that all rocks exhibiting stratification have been deposited by aqueous action-that is, that their particles were once mixed with water, and gradually sank to the bottom of the sea or lake, where, in process of time, they became solidified, and appeared on the surface, either by the draining off of the water or by the elevation of the bed.

Unstratified rocks are those which appear in amorphous masses (a, without, and morphe, form), that is, which exhibit no marks of stratification. Granite is a well-known specimen of such rocks. If excavations on the earth's surface be carried deep enough, these rocks are invariably reached-hence they are

tion of the technical geological expressions, will be at once comprehended by studying the diagrams in this lesson. The simplest form of deposition of strata is that which is Here there are no taking place at the bottom of lakes. disturbing currents, no eddies, no tides, and the only cause which could in any way modify this uniform distribution of débris (waste or worn material) brought down by the river would be the state of the river itself-whether it were flooded or not. The nature of the sediment must entirely be determined by the mineral character of the rocks of the country drained by the river. For instance, the colour of the Mississippi is not the same as that of the Arkansas and Red River. The mud which Chenab is reddish, and of the Sutlej paler. So that from the the Indus brings down is of a clayey hue, while that of the deposit of a river the geological character of the country it drains may be determined. From the sediment with which the Nile fertilises Upper Egypt the nature of the distant mountains, whose melting snows feed the flooding river, is plainly indicated.

The débris carried down by a river may be conveniently divided into three classes of matter (1) gravel, which is composed of water-worn pebbles; (2) sand, which is of the same material as the pebbles, but in grains; and (3) mud or silt, which is a further subdivision so as to render the particles impalpable-of such sediment is clay composed. It is evident that the gravel, being the heaviest, will be deposited nearest to the embouchure of the river, the sand would overlie this, while the mud would be carried far out into the still water, and gradually settle to the bottom. This is depicted in Fig. 1.

It is evident that upon the occasion of an extraordinary flood in the river the gravel will be larger, and will be carried

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further-so will the sand, which will be coarser, and will encroach on the area hitherto covered only by mud; thus we are able to account for those layers of coarse grains which frequently appear in a sandstone. Let the reader carefully scrutinise the stones of a wall, and he will at once find many examples of this. The area of deposition in a lake is necessarily very limited, hence the strata formed cannot be extensive, but where this process goes on in the sea enormous tracts are covered with sediment. For example, the waters of the Amazon colour the ocean for a distance more than 300 miles from land; that is, there is a layer of sediment now being deposited which in after ages may appear as a vast horizontal stratum.

Though all aqueous rocks must when deposited have been horizontal, yet when uplifted to the surface they submitted various kinds of disruptions and displacements, and not only

so, but the surface of the earth need not be uniformly level, even where the strata yet remain in their horizontal position. Thus, in Fig. 2, the river, A, has worn down and carried away six layers of strata, and is in the act of cutting into the seventh. A similar action has denuded the country to the right of the hill, c, which is thus composed of strata still in their original position, and which are found in a corresponding position on the hill, B. After the denudation had been completed in the neighbourhood of D, an upheaving force tilted the strata, throwing them out of their position and producing a hill, by very different means from those to which c owes its existence. The valley formed by the river between the hills B and C would be styled a valley of denudation. When the subterranean force acts upon strata which has not room to obey its impulse, the strata become crumpled as easily as the leaves of a book borne down by a weight upon their edges. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 3, where the sedimentary strata abut upon the granite mass A, at B; the contortions are numerous, but many instances no less remark

Fig. 3.

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an interstratified igneous rock. The molten matter was ejected over the floor of the ocean at a time when sediment was in the course of deposition, strata accumulated over this mass, and then another eruption broke through E and its overlying strata, pouring out another layer of unstratified rock; when the whole was raised from the ocean bed and submitted to the denuding action of water, the hard bed H preserved the softer underlying strata; the water having but little action on E, left it exposed, running along the side of the hill as a terrace. It often happens that several of these igneous layers thus appear one above the other, and for this reason have acquired the name of trap rocks (from the Swedish word trapp, a stair).

30

10.

20

Fig. 5.

At F is shown a smaller fissure, whose ramifications pass through stratified and unstratified rocks. Such fissures are usually filled with mineral ores; they then are called lodes (from the Saxon lad, a course) and veins.

The irruption of igneous rocks necessarily produces dislocation of the strata through which they pass; when the angle of the dip alters, as at A, a fault is the result. But if the continuity of the strata be broken, as at B, then a slip is said to have been caused. These faults and slips are of vital importance to the miner, as sometimes the seam of coal or the metalliferous vein has slipped practically beyond his reach.

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The facts which have now been described are applied to able are known; one is well exposed on the Rhine, where draw geological sections of countries and localities in the followthe Drachenfels wall in the river. At c, the whole series of ing manner. It is impossible to trace a bed of rock through strata has bent in accordance with the pressure, forming a the whole of its development; we meet with it here and there saddle-back or anticline (anti, opposite, and clino, I bend), be--at the sea-shore-in a railway cutting-in a quarry, or in cause the strata dip in opposite directions from the summit of some ravine where a stream of water has worn its way; at the hill on whose crest runs the anticlinal line. The Swiss these different points we take its bearings, and then complete Jura may be quoted as a specimen of the formation sketched the section from our knowledge of the general flexures which at c. These mountains are composed of three such anticlines strata undergo. running in parallel ridges. The valleys between в and c and C and D would be called valleys of elevation. At D the strata would be said to outcrop. If the outcrop be a bluff, bold cliff, it is termed an escarpment. The angle which the direction of the strata makes with the horizontal line is called the dip. The line of the outcrop is termed the strike, that is, the direction of the face of the hill as seen from the plain E. It is necessary also to determine not only the angle of the dip, but the direction of the dip, which will evidently be at right angles to the strike; that is, if the strike run north and south, then the direction of the dip will be east and west.

When strata lie evenly upon each other and parallel, they are said to be conformable; but when such an instance as E occurs, where the overlying strata are net parallel to those beneath, but have been deposited after the disturbed strata had assumed their new position, they are then said to be unconformable.

It may easily be imagined that sometimes the strata is too brittle to permit of a bend such as c, it then breaks on the crest of the ridge; this cleft becomes water-worn, forming a valley running along the top of the mountain. An example of this is also furnished in the Jura range.

The modes in which the unstratified rocks are found associated with those of aqueous origin are either in disrupting, interstratified, or overlying masses.

In Fig. 4 the strata has been opened at c, and the fissure

E

H

D

Fig. 4.

The observer must carry with him a compass and a clinometer. This latter instrument may be a quadrant of cardboard, the edge of which is divided into 90 degrees. A piece of slight wood is fastened with a pin to the angle of the cardboard, which is placed in the direction of the dip of the strata by the eye; a plumb-line, also attached to the pin, will show when the upper edge of the clinometer is horizontal. The angle between this upper edge and the rod is the dip of the strata. A clinometer is given in Fig. 5. They may be bought with a compass attached to them and a spirit level, so made as to fold together into a small space. Thus provided, the expedition may be commenced. The notes of the observations are registered, as in Fig. 6. The observer is

filled from below with molten rock. This was much harder than the stratified rocks around it, which succumbed to the action of water, and became degraded, leaving the mass of hard igneous rock standing out of the ground like a wall; hence such phenomena are termed dykes. At E is figured a specimen of

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guided by his compass to walk along the same direction, say from south to north. He finds the strata at A dipping southwards at an angle of 25°; a few miles further, after passing the crest of a slight eminence, the strata is again exposed at B in a quarry, and here the dip is changed to northwards and the angle to 30°. Again at c an observation is made, where the dip is southwards, and the angle 20°. Hence between B and c the strata evidently form a basin, the steeper side being at B. At D the dip is again northwards at a small angle, when suddenly at E the angle is greatly increased, while the direction of the dip remains the same. This could only be accounted for by supposing that somewhere between D and E the strata had been dislocated, and a fault produced.

From these observations the section represented may be drawn. The three parallel lines at A, B, C, etc., indicate the direction of the strike.

II.

LESSONS IN ITALIAN.—II. PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS.

I NOw proceed to explain Italian pronunciation in a method of recent adoption by some ingenious teachers of Italy, by which all the combinations of the vowels and consonants, and consequently all the ingredients and component parts of the language, will pass under the eye of the reader. Let him learn from the very beginning of his labours to pronounce each syllable of the following words and tables, and he will soon acquire a correct method of pronunciation. No word or combination of words can offer any difficulty to him, because he will have mastered the component parts of all words in these tables.

The Italian language has five vowels, representing seven sounds :

I. a, invariably sounded like the English interjection ah.
II. i, invariably sounded like ee in see.

III. u, invariably sounded like oo in too.

IV. 1. e, invariably sounded like ay in say, but with a slight opening of the mouth only, and with an elevated and clear tone. It is called, on that account, the close sound of the vowel.

2. e, invariably sounded something like e in let, set, and
the first e in every, but with a wide opening of the
mouth, and with a deep sound. It is called, on that
account, the open sound of the vowel.

V. 1. o, invariably sounded with a medium sound between o
and oo, which has no equivalent in the English lan-
guage, but which may be easily caught by the ear
from hearing an educated Roman or Tuscan speak.
Perhaps an approximation is the o in bone, hole, and
note, but with a slight opening of the mouth only,
and with an elevated and clear tone. It is called, on
that account, the close sound of the vowel.
2. o, invariably sounded something like o in lord and
orange, but with a wide opening of the mouth, and
with a deep sound. It is called, on that account, the
open sound of the vowel.

The first sound of e and the first of o occur in the majority of syllables, and may be called the ruling sounds of those two vowels. No distinguishing sign is used in Italian to mark the two e's or two o's. Englishmen must have some mark to indicate when e and o are to be sounded with their second or open sounds. I shall, in these cases, place on e and o this sign ^, as for example, é, ô.

The pronunciation of what, for the sake of distinction, I shall denominate the circumflexed sounds of e and o is not uniform throughout Italy; but as the pronunciation of Rome and Florence is the standard, all departures from it may be reckoned by our students as provincialisms, which ought to be carefully

avoided.

The Italian consonants, seventeen in number, are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. Mutes are those that require a vowel after them to render them pronounceable. Semi-vowels are those which require a vowel before them to make them pro

nounceable.

Let me first enumerate the mutes, and show by tables their

combinations with vowels in Italian words. There are ten mutes:

I. b, named in the alphabet, bee.

II. c, named in the alphabet chee, and sounded like ch in church before the vowels e and i. Before all other Vowels it is sounded like k in English.

III. d, named in the alphabet dee. IV. g, named in the alphabet jee, and sounded like g in ginger before the vowels e and i only. Before all other vowels it is sounded like g in gang, go, and gull. V. j, named in the alphabet i (ee) lungo or jota (i consonante), and sounded like y in yes only at the commencement of a word or syllable and before a vowel. At the termination of a word it is no longer a consonant, but must be sounded like a prolonged or lengthened ee.

VI. p, named in the alphabet pee.

IX. v, named in the alphabet vee (u consonante).

X. z, named in the alphabet tsaita, sounded like tz in
Switzerland, or like dz in adze.
These sounds vary

in different parts of Italy. After 1, n, and r, it is
generally pronounced like tz in Switzerland.
The
same sharp sound occurs in words derived from
Latin, and ending in zia, zio, zione, etc.

I shall mark each word in the following pronouncing tables, and indeed each word given as an example or illustration, with an accent, which, being merely arbitrary, used for the occasion to facilitate the progress of the English learner, and not used in Italian printing, I denominate the accent of tone. In every Italian word composed of more than one syllable, there is always one syllable on which, when we pronounce it, the voice ought to pause with a marked elevation of tone. This prolongation and elevation of the voice on the syllable is similar to the transition of the voice from one tone to another in music, in order to descend to the level of the original tone from which the voice was raised. The accent of tone exists more or less in every language, but it is more or less sensibly marked in one language than another, and it is strongly so in Italian; and on the marked use of this accent in a great measure depends the harmony of the language. I shall mark this accent by the acute sign ('), from right to left. It is true that this sign is sometimes printed in Italian words, but in a very few instances only, which I shall have occasion to point out hereafter. The grave accent (`), from left to right, is used much more frequently (the rules for its use will be given hereafter), and for this reason I prefer using, in order to avoid confusion, the acute accent as the arbitrary mark or sign of the accent of tone. Two-thirds of the Italian words have an accent of tone regulated by principles clear and invariable; which it would be inexpedient to lay down now, as they would not at this stage of our progress be thoroughly understood, but which I shall take occasion to point out in convenient places as I proceed.

One remark more with respect to the vowels e and o. I have called the first sound of e as ay in say, and the first sound of o (the medium sound between o and oo, which cannot be adequately vowels. The reason is this: they are heard in all syllables withmarked by an English equivalent) the ruling sounds of those out distinction, whether they have the accent of tone or not; while the second sound of e (pronounced with a wider opening of ever) and the second sound of o (also pronounced with a wider the mouth and a deeper sound, and something like e in let and opening of the mouth and a deeper sound, and something like o in orange and lord), can only be heard in accented syllables, of which there can be in each word only one. The former sounds, therefore, are much more frequent than the latter; because unaccented syllables are more numerous than those accented. With regard to the e in unaccented syllables having an English equivalent in ai or ay, I shall have no difficulty in marking the pronunciation; but with regard to o in unaccented syllables, as there is no equivalent, I should be obliged to use the acute accent, and thus confuse the reader, who would perhaps be unable to determine which was the accent of tone in a word and which the accent marking the peculiar sound of o. I beg it therefore to be understood once for all, that where I shall have occasion to use an o in unaccented syllables without any sign above it, the vowel must invariably have the first sound of o as above explained. I follow the authority not only of the edu cated classes of Florence and Rome, but also that of Celso Cittadini and the best theoretical writers on Italian pronunciation.

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Beatrice, a woman's name. The reader must not forget my previous observation that c before e and i is sounded like ch in the English word church. Boce (for voce) Voice, word. The acute accent over o marks not only the accent of tone,

bó-tchai

VII. q, named in the alphabet koo. It is an auxiliary letter, but also the first sound of o as stated before.

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Once for all, I must refer my readers to the opening explanation, where I stated that there is no English equivalent to the second, open or circumflexed sound of the e, as in the first syllable of ebano. For that reason, I have not attempted to imitate it by an English sound; and have therefore simply marked it by the circumflex sign. In all cases of the e circumflexed, the reader must studiously avoid the English sound of e, which would only create the greatest confusion. He may always bear in mind what I have stated, that an approximation to the circumflexed e is to be found in the e of the English words let and ever; only uttered with a wider opening of the mouth and a deeper sound. The circumflexed e is invariably the accent of tone.

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Angel.

jée-tah

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Angelo

áhn-jai-lo

Angina

ahn-jée-nah

Vigore

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Arguto

Paggi

ahr-góo-to páhd-jee

Inflammation of the throat.

Ingenious, witty.

Pages (attendants).

The pronunciation of gg depends on the vowel that follows the latter g. If that vowel is e or i, the gg's are pronounced somewhat as if the first g had merely the sound of d; and the second g, which goes to the next syllable, like the English jin jay, only the voice must not pause too long on the d of the syllable where the first g occurs; the stress must be laid on it, and the voice must glide as quickly as possible to the pronunciation of the second g, which must be very soft. In this

I shall have occasion to speak of the two sounds of s when I way there will be effected a more equal distribution of the sound explain the sounds of the semi-vowels.

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It is a fundamental rule of Italian pronunciation that double consonants must be uttered and vibrated distinctly. This is essentially necessary, not only as it augments the beauty and marks the orthography of words, but as it frequently distinguishes words of totally different meaning, but differing only in spelling by the single consonant instead of the double one; as, for example, caro, dear, and carro, a car; as I shall have occasion later more fully to illustrate. Where a or any other vowel precedes a double consonant, a particular stress must be laid on that vowel, and its sound must be shortened. I have not attempted to indicate that shortening of the sound of the vowel by any new sign, because a frequent change of sign only creates confusion, and the true pronunciation is obvious from the necessity of giving a vibrating clearness to the double

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j between the two syllables, which will produce the correct sound of the gg.

LESSONS IN MUSIC.-XV.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF MENTAL EFFECT OF FAH AND
LAH-(continued).

1. IN the last lesson we requested our pupils to study, in the examples given, the proper mental effect of the note FAH. But our attention was specially called to its effect in slow music. Let us now take one example of the remarkable manner in which this effect is modified by quickened movement and a lively rhythm. The following is an old song-tune, which was composed by the great Henry Purcell. Meant, at first, as it would seem, for the nursery rhyme of "Old Woman, whither so high," but which was put to a peculiar use by Lord Wharton in the memorable year A.D. 1688. Wishing to throw ridicule on an unpopular lordlieutenant of Ireland, whom King James II. had just appointed, he composed a doggrel ballad, which, by the charm of the music, conquered the hearts of the king's own army. Bishop Burnet says:"A foolish ballad was made about that time, which had a burden said to be Irish words-Lero, Lero, Lilliburlero'

The reader must not forget my previous observation that g that made an impression on the king's army that cannot be before e and i is sounded as in the English word ginger.

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imagined by those who saw it not. The whole army, and at last, the people both in city and country, were singing it perpetually; and perhaps never had so slight a thing so great an effect." "Lord Wharton," says Mr. W. Chappell, in his valuable 'Collection of National English Airs,' "boasted publicly of having rhymed King James out of his dominions. But he might, with far greater justice, have given the credit to Purcell, without whose irresistibly fascinating tune his lordship's rhymes would, in all probability, have fallen as harmless as his enemies could have wished." But where lies the power of ridicule in this tune, thus so remarkably proved? Undoubtedly the elegant melody, with its various rhythm, forms the magic spell which detains the ear; but the poison of the bowl, the sting of the ridicule, the mockery of the laugh, is in that note FAH-the fourth of the scale-so persistently recurring on the marked accents of the measure ever and anon showing itself with cold sarcastic curling lip out of the midst of "wreathed smiles." Every one who sings the song must feel that FAH is the note on which his feelings of contempt would find expression, if he can suppose his heart to be filled with the old animosity against the new Deputie." In a former lesson we noticed how the note ME is used to express contempt. But that was the contempt of pride, that despises and passes by. This is the contempt that looks long enough at its object to loathe it. Let our pupils, however, judge of all these matters for themselves by actual experiment. Let our own opinions be doubted, discussed, even rejectedanything so that our pupils only observe and think for themselves.

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