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Milites urbem combusserunt. 13. Literas legi, quas scripsisti. 14. Metuo ne hostes urbem obsidione cincturi sint. 15. Corrige illum puerum. 16. Præceptor curabit ut discipulos corrigat. 17. Narra mihi, quid patri dixeris. 18. Cupiditates coerceto. 19. Cupiditates coercere debemus. 20. Puer coercens cupiditates amatur. 21. Strenue animum cole, mi fili!

LESSONS IN SHORTHAND.-II.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

1. PHONETICS (from pwvn, phōne, voice,) the things relating to the voice: the science which treats of the different sounds of the human voice, and their modifications. The style of spelling in accordance with this science is named PHONETIC; the common style, such as is used in this book, being called ROMANIC, because it is formed from an alphabet derived from that which was used by the

Romans.

PHONOGRAPHY, (from phōnē, voice, and ypapn, graphe, writing,) the art of representing spoken sounds by written signs; also the style of writing in accordance with this art.

PHONOTYPY, (from phōnē, voice, and тuños, tūpos, type,) the art of representing sounds by printed characters or types; also the style of printing in accordance with this art.

PHO'NOGRAM, (from ypauua, gramma, letter,) a written letter or mark, indicating a certain sound, or modification of sound; as ah,

p.

PHO'NOTYPE, a printed letter, or sign, indicative of a particular sound, or modification of sound; as, σ, e (in so, snow); P, p. LOG'OGRAM, (from Aoyos, logos, word,) a word-letter; a phonogram, that, for the sake of brevity, represents a word; as |t, which represents it.

GRAM'MALOGUE, a letter-word; a word represented by a logogram; as it, represented by | t.

PHRA'SEOGRAM, a combination of shorthand letters representing a phrase or sentence.

The terms ART and SCIENCE should be used in accordance with the following definitions:-a science consists of general principles that are to be known; an art, of practical rules for something that is to be done. Hence we speak of the art of Phonography, and of the science of Phonetics on which it is based.

THE PHONOGRAPHIC ALPHABET.

EXPLODENTS.

V

(TH

) z

ノ ZH

Consonants.

CONTINUANTS.

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ASPIRATE H (9

SHORT.

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THE ALPHABET OF NATURE.

2. Phonography is based upon an analysis of the English spoken language. Its consonants and vowels are arranged so as to show, as far as possible, their mutual relations. In the consonants, p stands first, next; the rest follow in perfectly natural order, first the mute or explosive letters, proceeding from the lips to the throat; then the semivocals, or continuants, in the same order; and lastly the nasals, liquids, coalescents, and aspirate. Scarcely more than half the consonants are essentially different; the articulations in the pairs p and b, t and d, fand v, etc., are precisely the same, but the sound is, so to speak, light in the first, and heavy in the second letter of each pair. The consonants in each pair are represented by strokes in the same position, and of the same shape, but that chosen for the second is written thick, instead of thin; thus, \ p, \ b, |t, | d, \ ƒ, \ v, etc.; and thus, not only is the memory not burdened with a multitude of signs, but the mind perceives that a thin stroke corresponds with a light articulation, and a thick stroke with a heavy articulation. P, t, k, f, th(in), s, sh, are called light, or sharp consonants, and f, th(in), s, sh, are further denominated whispered, or breathed consonants; while b, d, g, v, th(en), z, zh, are heavy, flat, spoken, or murmured consonants. The difference is, that in the flat letters (b, d, g, etc.) a vocal murmur is added to the action of the organs by which the sharp letters (p, t, k, etc.,) are produced. The "vocal murmur which makes P into b, t into d, etc., is produced by the vibration of two vocal ligaments in the larynx or muscular sound-box in the windpipe, which lies behind the bony projection in the throat called Adam's apple, or pomum Adami. The light sounds are also called surds, while all the other letters (including m, n, ng, l, r, w, y, and the vowels,) are called sonants. Ch and j are double consonants, formed by the union of t, sh, and d, zh, as may be heard in fetch, cheap; edge, jem. They are placed, in the alphabet, next to t, d, the first elements of these compound consonants. The vowels are arranged naturally in two series, guttural and labial. Each series commences with the most open sound. The short vowels are represented by light dots and strokes, and the corresponding long sounds by heavy ones. After a few weeks' practice in writing Phonogra phy, the heavy strokes and dots are made without any perceptible effort; they are traced by the pen, with as much facility as their corresponding heavy sounds are produced by the organs of speech.

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3. The student of Phonography will find no difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of this useful art, if he will practise according to the following directions:-He should first obtain a knowledge of the sounds of the Phonographic Alphabet, by pronouncing them aloud; and then learn the signs by which these sounds are represented. This is most effectually done by writing each character several times, and pronouncing its name aloud at the same time.

4. The following Exercises are to be read, and afterwards copied into a book made of ruled paper. The pupil need not read through the whole lesson before he commences writing, but when he has read an Exercise, (that is, pronounced to himself the shorthand let ters or words of which it is composed,) he should write it several times, until he can form the characters neatly and accurately. A 3d. or 6d. "Phonographic Copy-Book" may be obtained of Mr. F. Pitman, 20, Paternoster Row, London, or of Mr. Isaac Pitman, Phonetic Institute, Bath, or it may be ordered through any bookseller. As a child learns to walk slowly, and with caution, and by continued walking acquires strength to walk quickly, or to run, so must the shorthand pupil trace his characters deliberately and accurately, until by much writing he can write both well and fast. We have known many students acquire an illegible style of shorthand writing by disregarding this advice.

5. The phonographic characters should not be written smaller than they are here; and care must be taken at the outset to trace them slowly and accurately. Rapidity and accuracy combined can be attained only by practice. The student is again particularly cautioned against attempting to write with rapidity at the outset. When his hand has become accustomed to trace the simple geometrical forms of the phonographic characters with correctness and elegance, he will find no difficulty in writing them quickly; but if he lets his auxiety to write fast, overcome his resolution to write well, he will not only be longer in attaining real swiftness, but will always have to lament the illegibility of his writing.

6. All the consonants, when standing alone, should rest upon the line. L, the straight/r, 20, y, and h, are written

full upward. Horizontal letters, as k,

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left to right. All other consonants, as t, p, are written downward; but, WHEN JOINED TO OTHER STROKES, and sh may be written either upward or downward. In Exercise 1, each consonant is repeated several times, for the purpose of giving the pupil sufficient practice in its formation to enable him to write it accurately, and remember its sound.

7. Phonography is at all times best written on ruled paper, but plain paper may be used, as in the following Exercises. The learner should always write upon paper ruled with single lines, and he may use either a quill or a steel pen, or a pencil. A pencil is recommended for exercises, and a pen for ordinary writing and reporting. As, however, the reporter is sometimes so situated that he cannot use pen, he should aecustom himself, at times, to report with a pencil. The pen or pencil should be held as for longhand writing, and the elbow be turned out so that the letter can be struck with ease. We will now display the shorthand consonants in a more extended form than in the preceding alphabet, and show by illustrative words the scund or power of each letter. Strictly speaking, consonants are not sounds but interruptions of sounds, made by the action of different parts of the mouth. The vowels are the only sounds of speech.

CONSONANTS.

Letter. Phonograph. Examples of its power. Name. Phonotype.

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II (up) oooo (down), 99

ON JOINING THE CONSONANTS.

9. All the consonants, when written alone, should rest upon the line. When combined to form words, they should be written without taking off the pen; the second commencing where the first ends, and the third being continued from the end of the second, etc. The following combinations, from line 1 to 5, must rest upon the line. In the combinations given in line 6, and all similar ones, the first letter rests upon the line, and the second is written below. 10. With one exception (which will be explained in the next lesson), every right-line and curve employed in Phonography, is written in the direction of one of the lines in the following diagram :

M

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N

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NG

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8. In the above Table the last column is occupied with the phon0type, or phonetic printing letter, that corresponds to the shorthand letter in the second column. These phonotypes are introduced for the purpose of assisting the pupil occasionally, in representing to his eye the sounds of which a word is composed, in order to guide him in his practice in the selection of the corresponding shorthand letters. The Exercise that follows must be carefully written out by the pupil into his copy book, each shorthand letter being pronounced aloud as it is written. A good style of writing can be formed only by carefally drawing the shorthand characters at the commencement of the pupil's practice. Speed will come by practice.

3.

4.

5. W

6.

READINGS IN GERMAN.-III.

3.-Die

Canarienvögelchen.

Dee ka-nah-ree-en-fö-ghel-yen.

Ein fleines Märchen, Namens Carolina, hatte ein Ine kli-ness meyt'-yen, nah-menss Ca-ro-lee'-na, hat'-tai ine allerliebstes Canarienvögelchen. Das Thierchen fang vom al'-ler-leep'-stess ka-nah'-ree-en-fo'-ghel-yen. Dass teer'-yen zank fom frühen Morgen bis den Abend, und war sehr schön frü"-hen mor'-ghen biss an dain ah'-bend, dont vahr zeyr sho'n

an

goldgelb mit schwarzem Häubchen. Carolina aber gab ihm gölt-gailb mit shwartsem hoip-yen. Ca-ro-lee-na ah-ber gahp eem zu essen Saamen und kühlentes Kraut, auch zuweilen cin tsoo ess'-sen zah'-men õõnt kü"-len-dess krout, ouch tsoo-vi ́-len ine Stückchen Zucker und täglich Frisches Wasser. shtück -yen tsoock'-ker dont teyy'-liy frish'-shess vass'-ser.

Aber plöglich begann das Vögelchen zu trauern, und eines Ah-ber plots'-liý bai-gann' dass fõ'-ghel-yen tsoo trou-ern, dont i'-nes Morgens, als Carolina ihm Wasser bringen wollte, lag c8 mor-ghens, als Ca-ro-lee'-na eem vass'-ser bring'-en võll'-tai, lahh) ess tort im Käfig.

toat im key'-fiy.

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ing. Bis, till. Abend, m. evening. Schön, beautiful. Gelb, yellow. Mit, with.

Schwarz, black.

tuft

Häubchen, n. (Haube, f. cap). Geben, to give. 3hm, to him (it). 3u, to. Essen, to eat. Saamen, m. secd. Kühlen, to cool. 3uweilen, sometimes. Kraut, n. herb.

Da erhob die Kleine ein Lautes Wehklagen um das Dah err-hope' dee kli-nai ine lou'-tess vey'-klah-ghen oom dass geliebte Thier und weinte sehr. Die Mutter des Marchens Dee moot'-ter dess meyt'-yenss gai-leep'-tai teer õõnt vine'-tai zeyr. aber ging hin und faufte cin anderes, bas noch schöner ah'-ber ghink hin ŏŏnt kauf-tai ine an'-dai-ress, dass noch sho'-ner war an Farben und eben so lieblich sang wie jenes, und that vahr an far'-ben dont ey'-ben zo leep'-lý zank vee yey'-ness, õõnt taht | Wasser, n. water.

es in den Käfig.

ess in dain key'.fly.

Allein das Mägblein weinete noch lauter, als es das neue Al-line' dass meyyt'-line vi'-nai-tai noch lou'-ter, alss cs dass noi'-ai Bögelchen fah. Da wunderte sich die Mutter sehr und fő-ghel-yen zah. Dah võon'-der-tai ziý dee mõõt-ter zeyr ŏŏnt sprach: Mein liebes Kind, warum weinest du noch, und bist so shprahch: Mine lee'-bess kint, vah'-rððm vi'-nest doo noch, dönt bist zo sehr betrübt?

zeyr bai-trü'pt'?

Deine Thränen werden das gestorbene Di'-nai trey'-nen veyr'-den dass gai-shtor-bai-nai Vögelchen nicht in das Leben rufen, und hier hast du ja ein fo-ghel-yen nyt in dass ley ́-ben roo'-fen, oont here hast doo yah ine andres, das nicht schlechter ist renn jenes. Da sprach das an-dress, dass nyt shley'-ter ist den yey'-ness. Dah shprahch dass Kind: Ach liebe Mutter, ich habe Unrecht gegen das kĭnt: Ady lec'bai moot'-ter, iỷ hah'-bai oon-reyt ghey-ghen dass Thierchen gehandelt, und nicht alles an ihm gethan, was ich teer'-yen gai-han'-delt, õõnt niyt al'-less an eem gai-tahn, vass ly sollte und fonnte.

zöll'-'ai dont kŏn'-tai.

Du

Liebe Lina, antwortete die Mutter, du hast sein ja Lee'-bai lee'-nah, ant'-vor-tai- tai dee mõõt'-ter, doo hast zine yah sorgfältig gepflegt. Ach nein, erwiederte das Kind, ich habe zory'-fel-tiy gai-pfleyýt'. Ach nine, err-vee'-der-tai dass kint, iy hah'-bai noch kurz ver seinem Tode ein Stückchen Zucker, bas ·noch kõõrts fore zi'-nem to"-dai ine shtück-yen tsõõk'-ker, dass doo mir für dasselbe gabst, ihm nicht gebracht, sondern selbst meer für dass-zel'-bai gahpst, eem niyt gai-bracht', zon-dern zelpst gegessen. So sprach das Märchen mit betrübtem Herzen. gai-ghess'-sen. Zo shprahd) dass meyt'-yen mit bai-trü'p'-tem herr'-tsen. Die Mutter aber lächelte nicht über die Klagen des Deo moot'-ter ah'-ber ley'-yel-tai nyt ü"-ber dee klah'-ghen dess Märchens, tenn sie erkannte wohl und verehrte die heilige

meyt-yenss, den zee err-kan'-tai vole dont ferr-eyr-tai dee hi'-li-gai Stimme ter Natur in tem Herzen bcs Kindes. Ach shtim'-mai dair na-toor in daim herr'-tsen dess kin'-dess. Ach! зи Muthe zalch'-tai zee, vee mahd) daim öon'-dank-bah-ren kin'-dai tsoo moo-tai sein am Grabe der Eltern. zine am grah'-bai dair el-tern.

sagte fie, wie mag bem undankbaren Kinde

Stud, n. piece. Zucker, m. sugar. Frisch, fresh.

Plöglich, suddenly. Trauern, to grieve,

mourn.

Liegen, to lie.
Tort, dead.

Käfig, m. cage.

derer.

Noch, yet, still.

Farbe, f. colour, dye, paint.

Eben so, just so.

Jener, jene, jenes, that. Than, to put, to do. Allein, but, alone. Neu, new.

Sich wuntern, to wonder. Lieb, dear. Du bist, thou art. Betrübt, sad (betrüben, Dein, thy. to afflict). Thräne, f. tear. Rufen, to call. Werten, to become, sign of the future tease, shall, will; sign of the passive voice, to be, to be doing. Sterben, to die. Leben, n. life.

of it, of him.

Sorgfältig, carefully.

Nein, no.

Erwiedern, to reply.
Kurz, short, -ly.
Tot, m. death.
Mir, dative, to me.
Für, for.

Dasselbe, the same.
Sontern, but.
Selbst, myself, your-

self, etc. Herz, n. heart. Lächeln, to smile. Über, at, over. Erkenzen, to recognise. Wobl, indeed, well. Verehren, to honour (Ehre, f. honour). Stimme, f. voice. Megen, may. Zu Mutbe sein, feel. (Muth, m. courage. mind).

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KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN.
EXERCISE 91 (Vol. II., page 63).

1. Amerika hat einen goldenen Boten für denjenigen, welcher eines Hanr werks funtig ist. 2. Der Geizige ist unempfindlich gegen das Glend An reichische Unterdrückung erhoben, waren uneingerenk ihrer Schwäche. 4. 3. Die Italiener, welche sich in einigen Provinzen gegen öfter Ich wurde des Hörens einer so langen Rete müte. 5. Jeter Mensch if seines Tores gewiß, aber Niemand ist stets desselben eingedenk. 6. Wennty des Landlebens so gewohnt wärest wie ich, würdest du nicht in der Stadt bles ben. 7. Niemals will ich mich einer That schuldig machen, welche mich Ihrer Freundschaft unwürtig macht. 8. Der Mensch, welcher ein gewissen haftes Leben geführt hat, und den Befehlen seines Gewissens gefolgt ist, fürchtet den Tod nicht; doch der Böse, uneingerenk seiner Thaten, und bewußt seiner Verbrechen, fürchtet den Tod und die Zukunft. 9. Mancher der eines Ber brechens angeklagt vor seinen Richtern steht, ist sich einer kleinern Schalt bewußt, als die, welche ihn richten.

to me.

EXERCISE 92 (Vol. II., page 63).

1. It would be agreeable to me if I could find a man who was attached 2. Even if you are related to me, yet your behaviour does not seem to me at all becoming; and I should think you yourself might perceive that people to whom your behaviour is known are not favourable to you. 3. My father remembers the last dearth very well. 4. bour, obedient to thy superiors, then will they be well disposed, and be That path is dangerous to the wanderer. 5. Be obliging to thy neigh be favourable to you. 6. Is the money promised to you certain? 7 As the prince is not like-minded with the people, and the people are indifferent to the prince, it makes governing difficult to the former, and hinders the prosperity of the latter. 8. The stars are favourable to me; my undertaking will be easy to me. 9. If bugs are not injurious to men, yet they are troublesome to them. 10. I am very glad that I can be useful to you in this affair. 11. Your praise was very flattering to my friend. 12. To become good is difficult to the vicious, because they generally remain true to their inclinations. 13. Many a week man is superior in mind to the strong man. 14. What difference is there between saying, "One man is unlike to the other," and " One man is dissimilar to the other?" 15. How stands the game? 16. Very unfavourably to me. 17. Though it is disagreeable to me, I must de clare to you that your talk is insufferable to me. 18. Who likes to admit

the principle, that "He who is not submissive to his king is untrue to his fatherland?" 19. I shall never forget how much I am obliged to you. 20. Not every one who is related to me is also well-pleasing to me. 21. What concerns me, I consider also as a matter of importance. EXERCISE 93 (Vol. II., page 63).

1. Wer kann einem Kinte feind sein? 2. Ist es Ihnen genehm, einen Spaziergang zu machen? 3. Dieses ist Ihrem Geschäfte schädlich. 4. Jetermann war ihm gewogen. 5. Eine gütige That ist Gott wohlgefällig. 6. Sie sind Ihrem Vater in Ihren Gewohnheiten sehr ähnlich, denn er war abgeneigt dem Rauchen und abhold dem Trinken. 7. Was mir angehört, laß ich mir auch angelegen sein. 8. Jedem denkenden Manne ist es bemert Ear, daß es für einen Fürsten nicht leicht ist, ein Volk sich ergeben zachen. 9. Mit Vergnügen will ich Ihnen behülflich sein, eine Ankelung zu erhal 10. Sei deinen Eltern gefällig, ihrem Willen gehorsam, dann werden sie vir geneigt und bein Glücke günstig sein. 11. Kaltes Wasser trinken i einem erhißten Körper schädlich. 12. Das Pferd ist ein gelehriges Thier und seinem Herrn gehorjam. 13. Wenn es Ihnen angenehm ift, samen Sie morgen Mittag zu mir. 14. Der Hund ist seinem Herrn 15. Er war geneigt sich seinen Freunden unangenehm

ten.

fogram und treu. zu machen.

EXERCISE 94 (Vol. II., page 94).

1. In olden times, when a mighty man was hostile to another, he declared war against him. 2. From all places which belonged to him, this mighty man collected those men who adhered to him. 3. After they had

assented to his purpose, they engaged to assist him, and to follow him to

the war. 4. Such a mighty lord was Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria, to whom belonged large territories, and whom thousands of warriors obeyed. 5. Yet the crown of an emperor always floated before his eyes. 6. The ducal coronet was not sufficient for him. 7. He trusted to his own power, and defied the emperor. 8. The emperor summoned him to submit to his orders, and threatened him with outlawry. 9. Yet the duke, who resembled a lion, valued neither reason nor advice. 10. As he till then had overcome all his enemies, he believed himself to be a match for everybody. 11. He resisted the demand to render an honour to the emperor, which was due to him. 12. The emperor, who for some time wished the duke ill, and on account of his pride was angry with him, anticipated him, and waged war against him. 13. The warlike expedition was not unsuccessful for the emperor. 14. The duke could not withstand the hostile power, and was defeated by the emperor in the battle. 15. He was obliged to flee to England, and only his family and a few of his friends followed him. 16. Here he resigned all hope, and execrated pride as the cause of his misery. 17. According to your wish, I will help you in looking for the horse which you have lost. 19. One very easily obeys a noble master, who convinces while he commands us. 19. I do not relish this roast meat.

LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-XVI.

SELENIUM-TELLURIUM-PHOSPHORUS.

SELENIUM:-SYMBOL, SE-COMBINING WEIGHT, 79'5-DENSITY, 79.5. THIS rare element was discovered by Berzelius in the refuse of a sulphuric acid manufactory, at Fahlun, in Sweden. It is not found free in nature, and the source from which it is usually obtained is the mineral clausthalite, in which it is combined with lead-although the selenides of iron, copper, and silver are the most abundant.

Preparation. Some clausthalite is reduced to a fine powder and fused with three times its weight of saltpetre, by this means the selenide (PbSe) becomes selenate (PbSeO). The mass is now digested in water, acidulated with a little hydrochloric acid to neutralise any of the alkali of the nitre which may remain, and the liquid evaporated down to a small bulk. A current of sulphurous acid throws down the reduced selenium as a red, flocculent, amorphous powder, the sulphurous acid becoming sulphuric.

Properties. It is chiefly remarkable for its close resemblance to sulphur. It may be obtained, like that element, in the three forms-amorphous, vitreous, and crystalline. When the powder of the precipitate above alluded to is dried, and submitted to a temperature a little below that of boiling water, it begins to soften, and a few degrees higher it melts; upon cooling, it forms a brittle solid, with a glassy fracture. Its colour is deep brown; it possesses neither taste nor smell; is insoluble in water, and refuses to conduct either heat or electricity: and yet its lustre is metallic. Sulphuric acid is capable of dissolving it, and is rendered green; but when diluted the selenium falls unaltered. Bisulphide of carbon, at its boiling point, can hold in solution 1 per cent. of this element, and upon evaporation the selenium

is deposited in crystals. In this form its specific gravity is 4.5, whereas in the vitreous state it was 4.7.

A third modification, corresponding to the viscid state of sulphur, is obtained by sustaining the temperature of the selenium at 90°C. for some hours: it then suddenly rises to 4-8, its fracture has become granular, like cast iron, and its 160°C. If it now be cooled, its specific gravity is found to be colour changed to bluish-grey. When thrown upon a hot coal eddish vapours are given off, which are characterised by their peculiar smell-that of horseradish. It burns in the air with a bright blue flame, and two well-defined oxides-selenic dioxide Se) and selenic trioxide (SeO3)—are known.

111.5), is usually prepared by oxidising selenium by means Selenic dioxide, or Selenious Acid (SeO2; combining weight, and the white selenious anhydroxide remains. At a temperature of nitric acid. The excess of the nitric acid is expelled by heat, near low red heat it will sublime in a yellow vapour, which on condensing forms beautiful white acicular (needle-like) crystals. These are deliquescent-that is, they absorb moisture from the atmosphere-becoming selenious acid, which forms with bases the class of salts called selenites, which are all recognised by emitting the horseradish odour, when heated on charcoal in the blowpipe flame.

Selenic Acid (H,SeO,).-This acid is produced if, in the process which has been given for procuring selenium, sulphuretted hydrogen be used, instead of sulphurous acid. Thus—

PbSeOH,SH,SeO, + PbS.

By filtering, the lead sulphide is separated; and by evaporating the liquid until its specific gravity is 2.6, selenic acid is obtained. When heated this acid gives off oxygen, and becomes selenious acid; it forms with bases selenates, which are isomorphous with their corresponding sulphates, that is, they crystallise in the same form.

Seleniuretted Hydrogen (symbol, H.Se; combining weight, 81-5; density, 40.75). This gas is obtained exactly as sulphuretted hydrogen, that is, by the action of an acid on a selenide. Its odour is even more offensive than that of its sulphur correspondent.

TELLURIUM:-SYMBOL, TE-COMBINING WEIGHT, 129-DENSITY, 129.

The classes of every natural kingdom seem to gradate into each other. That is, between every great division we find individuals which partake of the characteristics of each class. Tellurium occupies this position between the metals and metalloids, whilst, from its rather high specific gravity, 6.5, some chemists are inclined to rank it with the metals; yet, from its close analogy to selenium and sulphur, others prefer to consider it as a metalloid. It is a rare substance, sometimes found native in the mines of Hungary and Transylvania, but generally it is combined with gold, silver, bismuth, or copper. It possesses a high metallic lustre, and resembles bismuth in appearance. A high temperature converts it into a yellow vapour, which condenses in drops and flexible needles; it is a feeble conductor of heat and electricity. When strongly heated in the air it takes fire, and burns with a blue flame, edged with green, into

Tellurous Dioxide (TeO), which with water forms tellurous acid (H2TeO). Its acid properties are feeble, and it possesses a bitter metallic taste.

Telluric Acid (H,TeO,) is the combination of telluric trioxide and water. This trioxide is produced when the element, or a tellurite, is heated with salt patre. The process is similar to that by which selenic acid was procured.

Telluretted Hydrogen (H,Te) is procured by the action of hydrochloric acid on an alloy of tellurium with zinc or tin. It is a colourless gas, having the same smell as sulphuretted hydrogen. It acts upon solutions of metallic salts similarly to that gas, precipitating their tellurides.

It is usual to group oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and tellurium together, since they each unite with two atoms of hydrogon. The last three elements, as in the case of the three halogens, exhibit a remarkable gradation. Their combining weights, their specific gravities, their melting and boiling points, being almost in arithmetical progression-that is, in everything selenium is a mean between sulphur and tellurium.

PHOSPHORUS:-SYMBOL, P-COMBINING WEIGHT, 31-DENSITY, 62, The density of the vapour of phosphorus is an exception to the rule hitherto strictly regarded, for, instead of being the same as its atomic weight, it is just double, or 62, and therefore the volume occupied by an atom of phosphorus is only

, that of the preceding elements being 1. The great affinity phosphorus exhibits for oxygen, precludes the possibility of its being found free in nature. It chiefly exists in combination with lime, as phosphate of lime (calcium phosphate, Ca,2PO,), which is found in bones, and in the seeds of plants. The origin of calcium phosphate is traced to a constituent of some of the granitic rocks-the mineral apatite-from the disintegration of which the soil has become possessed of this necessary ingredient of all seed-producing soils.

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Preparation.-Bone earth-which is obtained by calcining bones-is composed of phosphate of lime and carbonate of lime; this is treated with diluted sulphuric acid, and kept at 100°C for twenty-four hours. By this means all the carbonate of lime becomes sulphate, and the phosphate is deprived of two molecules of lime, which are replaced by two of water. Thus3CaOP,O,+2H,SO. =2(CaSO.) + CaO2H,OP,O,. This last salt is called the superphosphate of lime. Being soluble it is easily separated from the calcium sulphate. Evaporating down the solution to a syrup, a quarter of its weight of charcoal is added, and the whole transferred to an iron retort. The neck of the retort dips into water. On applying heat, bubbles of carbonic oxide escape, and phosphorus, as a yellow wax-like substance, distils into the water, the reaction being thus expressed:

3(CaO2H,OP,O,) + 10C 10CO + 6H,0 + 3CaO P2O, + 4P. Properties. It is sold in sticks, which are clear and colourless when the substance is new. Its specific gravity is 1-83. It oxidises at all temperatures above 0°C, emitting a faint "phosphorescent" light, giving off white fumes, which are phosphoric acid (P, O,). It melts at 45°C, and boils at 290°C. It is extremely inflammable, and must be handled with the greatest care, as much under water as possible. Carbonic disulphide dissolves it readily: from this solution it can be obtained in crystals. When heated in an atmosphere of H, or CO,, to a temperature of 240°C, it assumes its "amorphous" condition, which is a dark red powder. This is more easily made by melting the phosphorus with a trace of iodine. In this condition it is not nearly so inflammable, need not be kept under water, and is not soluble in carbonic disulphide.

Matches.-The great use of phosphorus is in the manufacture of lucifer matches. The ordinary ones are composed of a mixture of phosphorus, potassium chlorate, glue, and red lead, the stick is first dipped in parafin, and then into the above paste.

Bryant and May's safety matches, which only strike on the lid, are made of sulphide of antimony, potassium chlorate, and powdered glass. The lid is smeared with red amorphous phosphorus, and ignition only takes place when the potassium chlorate and phosphorus are rubbed together. By using the above mixture, it is found unnecessary to dip the stick in parafin, as it will catch fire from the ignited composition. This action of phosphorus and potassium chlorate may be shown by powdering a few grains of the salt, adding a piece of red phosphorus about the size of a pea, then very carefully folding it up in paper, upon striking it a moderate blow with a stick, a somewhat violent explosion will ensue. Phosphorus is poisonous; it has a singular action on the jaw-bone, which decays away: this is said not to be the case with the amorphous variety.

Phosphoric Anhydride (symbol, P,O,) is a white powder, formed when phosphorus is burnt in oxygen, or dry air. It is very deliquescent, combining with three atoms of water, forming

form by evaporating its solution. If, now, these crystals be melted by heat, and the temperature maintained for some time at 212°C, one atom of the basic water will be expelled, and the bibasic acid remains. These three kinds may, when in solution, be thus distinguishedThe monobasic is the only one which will precipitate a solution of albumen.

The bibasic gives a white precipitate with nitrate of silver. The tribasic a yellow precipitate with the same salt.

By replacing the atoms of water in these acids by various bases, corresponding salts may be obtained. Sometimes the water atoms are replaced by different bases. Thus

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the hydrated acid (3H,OP,O,), which may be considered as two arranged as in Fig. 48. The flask must be nearly full of the molecules of H,PO..

Phosphoric Acid.-The anhydride is capable of forming three acids, by taking three different proportions of water. Consider ing the water as a base, the acids are named

[blocks in formation]

Sometimes the first is called "metaphospholic acid," and the second "pyrophosphoric acid," because it is got from the third by heat.

The Monobasic is obtained by evaporating dilute phosphoric acid to a syrup, and subjecting this to a low red heat.

The Tribasic is procured by boiling for twenty minutes a solution in water of "glacial phosphoric acid." This latter is formed when the hydrate (2H,PO) is exposed to a red heat in a platinum dish. The tribasic acid may be got in a crystalline

solution.

Phosphuretted hydrogen is not spontaneously inflammable when pure, but this property is due to the presence of a minute quantity of a liquid, whose composition is supposed to be PH,. It is this gas which sets fire to the bubble of marsh gas, forming the ignis fatuus.

Phosphorous Chloride (PCI).-Clear phosphorus burns with a pale blue flame in dry chlorine, forming this compound. It is capable of decomposing water and other oxides, the chlorine combining with the hydrogen, or the metal and the phosphorus forming a phosphite (H,PO).

Phosphoric Chloride (PCI,) is produced by a further action of chlorine on phosphorus chloride. With bromine two similar compounds are formed; with iodine the beautiful crystalline P,I,, and with sulphur three well characterised sulphides-P,S, PS, PS-are produced.

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