twenty feet in the space of three years. Its staminiferous
flowers are in long multi-floral racemes. Its pistils are almost
sessile. Fruit about the size of a little melon, a delicious article
of food, either in its raw state or cooked. The milky juice of
the stem and leaves contains a fibri-
nous matter, which has the singular
property, that on pouring a few
drops of it into water, and steeping
in this water for the space of a few
minutes raw meat, the latter be-
comes remarkably tender. The
same result is obtained by envelop-
ing the meat in leaves of the tree,
or even by suspending it from the
tree; but in any case the meat must
be eaten immediately after cooking,
otherwise it rapidly spoils.

SECTION CXI-BEGONIACEE, OR
BEGONIADS.

Characteristics: This natural or

Numerous species are cultivated in the hot-houses of Europe, of which the scarlet begonia (Fig. 270) is the most magnificent. SECTION CXII.-EUPHORBIACEE, OR SPURGEWORTS. Characteristics: Flowers dicecious and generally without calyx

or corolla; sepals free or joined, ordinarily valvate in æstivation; Ovary usually three-celled; uni- or bi-ovulate; carpels joined with a central styliferous axis; fruit capsular, with dry or fleshy epicarp separating in valves; seeds pendent; embryo dicotyledonous, straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen.

The greater number of this species contain a milky, acrid, and poisonous juice, which often holds dissolved, in addition to other principles, a peculiar elastic substance, and occasionally colouring matter. The seeds are oily, the root is some

der contains four families, the chief of which is the genus Begonia, from which the order takes its name. The plants belonging to this order inhabit tropical regions. They have alternate stipulate leaves and monoecious flowers; perianth petaloid; tube adherent to the Ovary; stamens numerous; ovary inferior, tri-locular, multi-ovular; capsule triangular, loculicidal, three-valvular; embryo occupying the axis of a fleshy albumen. These plants contain oxalic acid, the presence of which, in conjunction with stipules and the nature of the perianth, causes them to approach the Rumex tribe, in which genus of the natural order Polygonaceae the sorrel and water-dock are included.

times feculent. The Euphorbia, the type of this natural order, present an aspect of great variety; certain members possess a fleshy stem angular and spiny, very much resembling cactuses; others have normal leaves and stems. Many of the African, Arabian, and Indian species furnish an exudation, which, when thickened by the sun, becomes the commercial euphorbium. The manchineel (Hippomane Mancinella, Fig. 271) is a fine tree of intertropical America, celebrated for its peculiarly poisonous qualities. If accounts are to be trusted, it is certain death for an individual to sleep under one of this species; and even rain which touches the skin after having fallen upon the leaves of this tree raises 2

blister. The manchineel tree also bears tempting-looking fruit, from which an agreeable odour is exhaled, but even a small portion, if eaten, is certain death. Castor oil is expressed from the seeds of one of the Euphorbiacca, the Ricinus communis, or castor-oil plant (Fig. 272).

The genus Manihot contains two important species, both especial objects of cultivation in many parts of America on account of their feculent root. The Manihot Aipi, or sweet cassava, is eaten by the natives after being roasted in hot cinders; animals eat it raw. The Manihot utilissima, or bitter cassava, contains in its root a juice charged with prussic acid, or a material which readily produces this acid by decomposition. Nevertheless, the natives where the tree grows derive an abundance of nutritive matter from this vegetable, much of which is exported under the name of tapioca.

SECTION CXIII.—CANNABINACEÆ, OR HEMPWORTS. Characteristics: Flowers dioecious; perianth of staminiferous flowers, calyciform, perianth of the pistilliferous flowers reduced to a bract; ovary uni-locular, one or two-styled; ovule single, pendent, curved; fruit a small nut or achenium; seed exalbuminous, bent back; stem herbaceous; leaves stipuled, opposite, or occasionally the superior ones alternate.

The genera Cannabis and Humulus compose this small family. Hemp (Cannabis sativa), a native of Persia, has leaves palmate or dentate in segments. The individual on which the staminiferous flowers grow has a more withered aspect and sooner dries up than the other, to which the appellation female hemp is commonly applied. The male individual is that from which the substance hemp is obtained. The common hop (Humulus lupulus, Fig. 273), is a well-known plant, having a climbing angular stem and cordate, lobed leaves. Its achænium and its bracted calyx are studded with glands containing a bitter aromatic substance, slightly narcotic in quality, and on which the virtues of the hop depend. It is termed by chemists humuline. The counties of England in which the hop is chiefly cultivated are Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. It is also grown in smaller quantities in Worcestershire and Nottinghamshire. Pillows stuffed with the hop-blossom are sometimes used to procure sleep.

apostrophe on gl' before im-pil-ghi. The reason of this is, that the plural gli only requires the apostrophe before words commencing with the vowel i, and never before words commencing with the vowels a, e, o, and u; which is clearly a necessary usage to maintain the squeezed sound of the word gli (llyee) in these cases. For, otherwise, gl' án-ge-li would be pronounced, according to the rules explained in the fifth pronouncing table, gláhn-jai-lee. Even Italians themselves are occasionally liable to commit the fault of placing the apostrophe on the gl before a, e, o, and u; but the difference caused in the pronunciation manifestly shows the grossness of this blunder.

The article la can only be used before words of the feminine gender which begin with consonants. The plural is le. For example:

L'es-pe-riên-ze, the experiences; l'e-re-sí-e, the heresies. But before feminine words commencing with the other vowels, the le is not commonly used with an apostrophe. For example; le á-ni-me, the souls; le in-sé-gne, the banners, signs; le ô-pe-re, the works; le-u-sán-ze, the usages.

It is obvious that the six words above mentioned, constituting the three articles in the singular and plural, il, lo, la, i, gli, and le, must frequently meet monosyllables, and therefore occasion dissonance. As harmony is a marked characteristic of the language, some means must be found to correct this. This is effected by contractions, in which letters are changed, omitted, or added according to laws dictated by the conveniences of pronunciation, by custom, and by harmony. The monosyllables referred to are di, of; a, to; da, from, by; con, with; per, for, through; su, upon; and the important contractions (to be committed to memory) to which they are subject, when in combination with the articles il, lo, la, i, gli, and le, are the following:

---

Il si-gnó-re, the gentleman.

I si-gnó-ri, the gentlemen.

For di il write dЛ. di i déi.* di lo dél-lo. dell'. dé-gli. dél-la. del-le.

da gli " da la

For da i write dai.t da lo dál-lo. da l' dall'. dá-gli. dál-la.

"

có-gti.

"

con la

"

cól-la.

con le

"

"

su l' su gli

"

súl-lo. sull.

sú-gli.

a lo

al-lo.

in l'

in gli "

nell'. né-gli.

a gli

ag-li.

in la

nél-la.

Lo stra-nie-re, the stranger. Gli stra-ni-ri, the strangers.

per il per i per gli

pal.

pé-gli.

col-lo.

The article lo, without the apostrophe, can only be used before those masculine words which begin with the s impure. The plural of lo is gli. For example :

Lo spi-ri-to, the spirit.

Gli spí-ri-ti, the spirits.

The only exception to this rule is the very frequent use of the article lo after the preposition per, for, through, before words not beginning with the s impure; as, for example, per lo món-do, for the world; per lo giar-dí-no, for or through the garden; per lo pas-sá-to, for the past.

Many grammarians of great authority have even emphatically proscribed the use of per il in the place of per lo. As, however, cultivated persons and the best writers have never ceased occasionally to use the combination per il, its correctness and allowableness will at once be admitted, for the usage of a language is a safer guide than the caprice of grammarians.

The article to is also used before all masculine words that begin with a vowel; but in such a case the apostrophe must be used thus, l'. For example:

The reader will remark that I only give three contractions of the word per. For this reason, that per, generally speaking, is not contracted with an article commencing with the letter 1, and in such cases, it is customary to place per and such an article separately; as per lo pas-sá-to, for the past; per la cá-sa, for the house; per le so-rél-le, for the sisters.

The letter s in the word casa, although placed between two vowels, has the sharp, hissing sound, as well as in the words cô-sa, thing, and co-sì, thus, before commented on.

With regard to the word con, with, it may be remarked that,

• It is useful, with regard to pronunciation and orthography, to bear in mind the difference between these three words: déi, of the (pl.); Dé-i, gods (the plural of Dí-o); and De-ì, dey (of the Barbary States). It is, for the reasons stated in the previous note, useful to mind the difference between di, to the (pl.), and á-j, tutors.

Mind the difference between dái, from or by the (pl.), and dá-i, thou givest.

§ Mind, also, the difference between néi, in the (pl.), and nế-i, moles (upon the body), patches (on the face).

when it comes in connection with an article commencing with 7, it is optional to contract it; it being equally correct to say con lo' or cól-lo scét-tro, with the sceptre; col or con l' in-gán-no, with the deceit; con la or cól-la si-gno-ra, with the lady; con le or cól-le brác-cia, with the arms.

Once for all, being obliged for the greatest part to divide the syllables as they are divided in Italian spelling, I must emphatically warn the reader not to read the combination cc (when not followed by h) as though the first c was a k (the Englishman would naturally do so), but to read the whole combination as though it was ttch, gliding with great rapidity from one syllable to the other. I must refer, on this point, to my remarks and tables on pronunciation.

Two important prepositions, tra and fra, between, among, can likewise be contracted with the article, but in a special way, and with modifications which must be stated separately.

If tra and fra are to be contracted with an article commencing with 1, the letter I must be doubled, ll; as, for example, frál-le mon-tá-gne, between the mountains; trál-le dú-e so-rêl-le, between the two sisters; frál-lo scrí-gno e la sé-cia, between the chest and the chair.

Whenever tra or fra is to be joined to the article i, the latter is omitted, and an apostrophe placed in its stead. For example: fra' cu-gi-ni, between the cousins; tra' fra-tél-li, between the brothers.

The words tra and fra are never contracted with the article gli. For example: fra gli a-mí-ci, between the friends; tra gl' in-fe-li-ci, between the unfortunate.

When tra or fra stands before il, the letter i of the article is commonly not heard in pronunciation, and in writing the apostrophe is used in its place. For example: fra 'l són-no, during the sleep; tra 'l si e 'l nô, between yes and no, hesitating.

The so-called indefinite article uno, masculine, and una, feminine, will be hereafter explained.

In Italian, as in English, the nouns have no terminational alteration in either number; that is to say, all cases are alike. Strictly speaking, therefore, they cannot be said to have any declensions. All changes in Italian nouns denote only a difference in gender or in number. For example: pás-se-ro, sparrow, not only denotes the object sparrow, but also that it is a male; and pás-se-re (female), sparrows, not only denotes the feminine, but the plurality of number. The article in Italian, as in French, Spanish, and English, does not in itself denote the case, but is a word that distinguishes one noun as a determined object from another noun of the same class. It is on this account a fixed principle of the language never to place the article before a noun, when the latter is used in its general and indeterminate signification. The articles il, lo, and la, are in themselves as indeclinable as the noun itself. They only change according to the gender and number of the noun; and when the Italians desire to denote cases, they must, on this account, like the English, place before the articles certain words, which are the substitutes of those inflections by which, in the Greek, Latin, and German languages, the cases are expressed. The English have only two such signs of cases-the words of and to. The Italians have three: di, for the second case, or genitive; a, for the third case, or dative; and da, for the sixth case, or ablative. These three words, di, a, and da, are used in the singular as well as in the plural, before masculine nouns as well as feminine. In the first case, or nominative, and in the fourth case, or accusative, the Italian noun has, as well as the English, no case sign before it, and both these cases are sufficiently distinguishable by the place which they take before or after the verb, for which reason they require no special distinguishing mark. For example :

:

A-les-sán-dro vín-se Dá-rio, Alexander conquered Darius; Car-lo per-cuô-te il cá-ne, Charles strikes the dog; il prín-ci-pe ma là các cia, the prince likes the chase; Piê-tro lêg-ge le gaz-zét-te, Peter reads the newspapers.

I must once for all, and emphatically, warn the reader, because I am obliged, in the case of the double g (gg), to place the first g in one syllable, and the second g in the next, not to read (when the gg is not followed by h) the first g like g in the English word get, to which mistake many readers will be naturally liable; but I must refer, with regard to the pronunciation of the g (gg), to the lessons on pronunciation.

Italian nouns: I. with and without an article; II., with some important words frequently preceding them. These tables are so important that they must be committed to memory. But let me first remark, that it will be sufficient for our present purpose to lay down this fundamental rule with regard to the formation of the plural of Italian nouns :

All Italian nouns, masculine and feminine, change their final vowel into I in the plural; as, il pá-dre, the father; i pá-dri, the fathers; i po-e-ta, the poet; i po-ê-ti, the poets; il cer-vo, the stag; i cer-vi, the stags; la má-dre, the mother; le má-dri, the mothers; la má-no, the hand; le má-ni, the hands.

The most important exceptions from this rule are feminine nouns terminating in A, which form their plural by changing A into E; as, la so-rel-la, the sister; le so-rêl-le, the sisters. 1.-NOUNS DECLINED WITH AND WITHOUT AN ARTICLE.

Singular.

il libro, the book.

del lí-bro, of the book.

dal lí-bro, from the book. nel l-bro, in the book. col lí-bro, with the book. pel lí-bro, for the book. sul l-bro, on the book.

Plural.

i l-bri, the books.

dei (de') li-bri,t of the books. ai (a') li-bri, to the books. i lí-bri, the books.

al li-bro, to the book.

schiop-po

dai (da') lí-bri, from the books. nei (ne') li-bri, in the books. coi (co') li-bri, with the books. pei (pe') lí-bri, for the books. sui (su') li-bri, on the books. Singular.

lo schiop-po, the gun.
dél-lo schiop-po, of the gun.
ál-lo schiop-po, to the gun.
lo schiop-po, the gun.

dál-lo schiop-po, from the gun. nel-lo schiop-po, in the gun. cól-lo schiop-po, with the gun. per lo schiop-po, for the gun. súl-lo schiop-po, on the gun. Plural.

gli schiop-pi, the guns.
dé-gli schiốp-pi, of the guns.
á-gli schiop-pi, to the guns.
gli schiop-pi, the guns.

dá-gli schiop-pi, from the guns. né-gli schiop-pi, in the guns. có-gli schiop-pi, with the guns. pé-gli schiop-pi, for the guns. sú-gli schiop-pi, on the guns. Singular.

l'a-nel-lo, the ring.

dell' a-nél-lo, of the ring.
all' a-nél-lo, to the ring.

* Instead of the plurals i, dei, ai, dai, some old writers used the plurals li, delli, alli, dalli; but this is no longer usual.

The plurals dei, ai, dai, nei, coi, pei, sui, are frequently marked with the apostrophe for the sake of harmony, thus: de', a', da', në', co', pe', su'; especially when coming before several words all of which terminate in i. For example, a ca-gió-ne để một tí suối pet có tí, ca account of his many sins.

and pronunciation of Italian words, frequently requires that to the case-sign a, when it comes before a vowel, the letter d should be added; as, ad o-nó-re, to honour; ad a-mi-co, to the friend; for onore, and a amico.

Harmony, which has had so much influence on the formation

The laws of harmony, likewise, frequently require the mark of the apostrophe on the case-sign di, when it comes before words commencing with a vowel; as, cá-po d' 6-pe-ra, masterpiece; sé-gno d' u-mil-tà, sign of humility.

The case-sign da, on the other hand, is never marked with the apostrophe, but always written in full, in order to avoid the inevitable ambiguity of confounding the case-sign di with it whenever it is marked with the apostrophe, and the dissonance of two vowels in this case coming together must be tolerated; because, as I have already remarked, perspicuity is a more urgent law than harmony in these

l'a-na-lo, the ring.

dall' a-nél-lo, from the ring. nell' a-nél-lo, in the ring. coll' a-nél-lo, with the ring. per l'a-nél-lo, for the ring. sull' a-nél-lo, on the ring.

Plural.

gli a-nel-li, the rings.
dé-gli a-nél-li, of the rings.
á-gli a-nel-li, to the rings.
gli a-nel-li, the rings.

dá-gli a-nél-li, from the rings.
né-gli a-nél-li, in the rings.
có-gli a-nel-li, with the rings.
pé-gli a-nél-li, for the rings.
sú-gli a-nél-li, on the rings.

Singular.

la cá-sa, the house.

del-la cá-sa, of the house. ál-la cá-sa, to the house. la cá-sa, the house. dál-la cá-sa, from the house. nél-la cá-sa, in the house. cól-la ca-sa, with the house. per la cá-sa, for the house. súl-la cá-sa, on the house.

Nom.

ca-sa

Gen.

di

Dat.

a

Acc.

ca-sa

Abl.

da

ca-sa

in

cá sa

OUR HOLIDAY.

ROWING.-I.

As a useful art, as well as a popular pastime, rowing deserves a very high place among physical exercises. To be able to perform an efficient part in the management of a boat may frequently be of the greatest service; and even if no such opportunity should ever arise, the time is well spent that gives power to enjoy so cheerful and healthy a recreation.

Before teaching the learner how to row, we must describe the instruments of rowing. These are, of course, the boat, and the oars or sculls by which it is propelled. A scull is much the same thing as an oar, the difference being that it is shorter and lighter, and therefore more manageable in the hands of the rower. When he takes an implement in each hand, he uses a pair of sculls; but when he rows with one implement only, some one else taking one on the opposite side, he uses an oɑr. The description of one will apply equally to the other.

The oar consists of three principal parts-the handle, the shank, and the blade. The blade is the wider portion, which is dipped into the water; the shank is the middle part, divided from the handle by a small piece of leather, which is fixed to the undermost side, and known as the button. The handle is again divided technically into two portions-the extremity, which is grasped by the hands, and the part between the grasp and the button, which is called the loom.

Boats are of several kinds, according to the variety of purposes to which they are devoted. The different parts of all boats, however, go by the same names, so far as they correspond with each other. For convenience of description of these parts, we will take as the representative of its kind the boat depicted in the illustration.

Here again we have three principal parts-the bows, the midships, and the stern. The bows are the narrowest and foremost portion, just behind the stem or cutwater, the position of which is sufficiently designated by the name. The stern is the hindmost portion of the boat, and the midships are the intervening space between the stern and the bows. Immediately under the stern is the rudder by which the boat is guided, and the part of the boat to which it is affixed is called the stern post.

The boards of which the sides of the boat are composed are known as the strakes, and the lower strakes are called garboards. Immediately under the garboards, and projecting from the bottom of the boat, is the keel. The pieces of wood which cross the boat between the strakes are known as the timbers. Those immediately at the bottom of the boat, in the midships, are the bottom-boards; those in the bow are the bow-sheets; and the planks in the stern are the stern-sheets.

Now as to the various portions of the midships, in which the rowers sit and perform their office. The seats themselves are called the thwarts, and the wooden fastenings by which they are fixed to the sides of the boat are the knees. The thwarts in river boats are usually provided with small mats for the convenience of the rower, which are tied underneath the seat to prevent them from slipping. In front of each rower, at the bottom of the boat, is a movable plank, which is fixed in a vertical or slanting position, so as to form a resting-place for his feet. On the upper side or wale of the boat, in front of each rower, are projecting pieces of wood called the rowlocks, the oars or sculls being passed between them. The piece nearest to the rower, when his oar is placed in the water, is known as the thole, and the other as the after-thole, or stopper. The two together keep the oar in its place on the side of the boat, and form a fulcrum for the leverage by which the boat is propelled. Between the two pieces of wood which form the rowlock, a piece of leather, called the filling, is inserted. This gives a resting-place for the oar, the button of which is placed against the thole when in position.

The coxswain, or man who steers the boat, when such aid is required, is seated in the stern-sheets, with his face towards the rowers. He guides the rudder by means of the yoke-lines, or cords which pass one on each side of the stern from the yoke, which is a piece of wood crossing the top of the rudder. The rope at the bows, used to fasten the boat, is the painter.

Such are the various parts and appliances of a boat, although every kind of boat does not possess them all, like the boat in our illustration. But it will be necessary for the reader to bear these names in mind, or to become familiar with them by

frequent reference, as when he commences rowing he will constantly hear them referred to.

6

We have next to mention the principal varieties of boat, as found upon our rivers. These are chiefly wherries and skiffs, gigs and out-riggers. The two former are old-fashioned boats, used by watermen for the carriage of passengers and goods, and do not require detailed mention. Gigs and out-riggers are the vessels chiefly used by amateurs. One form of the gig is seen in the centre illustration; the chief characteristics of all gigs being the straight wale and the almost upright stern. In appearance the gig is a much smarter

difference that they are out-rigged with iron rowlocks. In this form they are usually called out-rigged gigs or wager-boats. In boats larger than pair-oar, the rower who is seated nearest the bow is called either "bow" or "No. 1;" the next to him is "No. 2," and so on according to the number of rowers. The oarsman nearest the stern of the boat is known by the name of stroke, as it is by his stroke, or movement of the car through the 6 water, that the others regulate theirs.

6

1

2 3

4

5

vessel than the wherry, and it is gradually superseding the latter, even for watermen's uses, on our chief rivers.

Gigs are of all sizes, from pair-oared to eight-oared boats, the number of seats for the rowers in the boat giving it its particular designation. Thus a boat with two seats is called a pair-oared boat, each of the rowers taking one oar; but the wale has four rowlocks, in pairs opposite each other, so that the rowers may, if they prefer it, take a pair of sculls each instead of an oar. A gig with three seats is commonly termed a randan, and is a very useful boat for a learner to practise in. The first and third of the rowers use each a single oar, while the occupant of the centre seat handles a pair of sculls; and the learner who takes his place in a randan boat has thus an opportunity of becoming familiar with the use of both the oar and the sculls.

the party, able not only to row steadily, but to time his movements with the greatest uniformity.

The duty of steering, or guiding the head of the boat, is usually assigned to a coxswain, who faces the stroke, and, as before mentioned, holds a yoke-line in each hand, by which to influence the rudder. He is also useful, in practice especially, in calling the attention of either of the men to any irregularity

Out-rigged boats are used chiefly for racing purposes. They owe the name to the fact of the rowlocks being supported on an iron framework which is rigged outside the boat. This alteration enables the boat to be both narrower and lighter in its construction than in the ordinary method, and at the same time gives more leverage in propelling it. The out-rigger proper, as used by a single sculler for racing purposes, is depicted in our illustration. It I will be observed that the dimensions of the

in his stroke, by which the general uniformity is affected. In his absence the oarsmen must guide their own course by an occasional glance over the shoulder, and a stronger stroke, or perhaps a cessation of the pull, on the one side or the other, as the position may require.

When taking his seat in a boat, the learner should first observe that the thwart is firmly fixed, and that the mat upon it is se curely tied to that part of it which is farthest from his rowlock. He has next to adjust the position of the stretcher according to the length of his legs, so that when seated his feet rest firmly against it, and give a purchase to assist the free movement of the loins. The heels should be together, and the

central part of the boat, called the "box," are merely sufficient to afford the sculler a seat; the remainder of the upper surface is covered with canvas, and the stem and stern are tapered off to mere points. Thus the vessel altogether is calculated to cleave the water with great rapidity. The length of such a boat as this is usually about thirty feet, and its width amidships little more than a foot.

Racing boats, accommodating from two to eight oars, are now commonly constructed somewhat in gig fashion, but with the

toes parted; the knees bent,

be straight, and the whole position easy, but upright. The oar should now be taken

with the han

dle in both

hands, and

placed in the rowlock with the button against and inside the thole. The outside hand-that is, that farthest from the rowlock-should grasp the handle nearly, but not quite, at the extremity; the inside hand taking its hold two or three inches away from the other. The thumb of the outside hand may be either above or below, but that of the inside may be under the handle, and the entire grasp of the oar should be firm without tightness.

We must reserve for another paper our instructions how to proceed, and the mode of practice to secure efficiency as an

Oarsman.