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face of the article by means of an adhesive varnish; but in the case of metallic articles the gold is precipitated by various means on their surfaces. The method introduced by Mr. Elkington is simple. Dissolve 1 part of auric tri-chloride, the common "chloride of gold," in a little water. Add to it 20 parts of the bicarbonate of potash very gradually. An equal portion of the bicarbonate is dissolved in 150 parts of water. The two solutions are mixed together and boiled for two hours. The articles to be gilded are dipped for an instant in a mixture of equal parts of sulphuric and nitric acids, to free their surfaces from any trace of oxide. They are removed rapidly into water and washed, and then immersed in the hot gilding solution. If the gold is required to appear dead, a little salt is added to the acids which remove the oxide. Articles of silver or German silver may be gilded in this bath by joining them to a zinc or copper wire and immersing both.

This process has its defect in the fact that as soon as the surface is coated with gold, which is very thin, the deposition is arrested. Hence electro-gilding has superseded it.

In order to render gold sufficiently hard to withstand the wear and tear of use, it is always alloyed. The standard gold is composed of 1 part of copper to 11 of gold.

The oxides of gold are the sub-oxide (Au,O) and auric oxide (AO), sometimes called auric acid. The former is precipitated as a green powder when a dilute solution of potash is added to a solution of the chloride of gold. The latter falls as a brown powder when magnesia is added to a solution of the terchloride of gold. Sunlight will decompose this oxide into oxygen and gold. When treated with ammonia, fulminating gold is formed. The chlorides of gold correspond with the oxides, being auric chloride (AuCl) and terchloride (AuCl,).

The chloride is got by exposing the terchloride to a temperature equal to the fusing point of tin. Two atoms of chlorine are thus liberated, and the terchloride is reduced to a monochloride. The preparation of the terchloride has been indicated. It is a deer coloured, yellow crystalline powder. It is the most important of the auric salts, and is used in photography to impart to photographic prints their purple tone.

PLATINUM.

SYMBOL, Pt-COMBINING WEIGHT, 1974-SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 21.5. Like gold, platinum is always found in a native state. It is frequently alloyed with gold and silver, and generally with the five rare metals-palladium, rhodium, osmium, ruthenium, and iridium. The mines of Mexico and Brazil produce the metal, but it is chiefly obtained from the gravel deposits at the foot of the Ural Mountains.

On account of its great infusibility it is difficult to procure. The chemical method devised by Wollaston consisted in dissolving the metal by means of aqua regia. The platinum, mixed with some little iridium, is precipitated from the clear liquid by means of sal-ammoniac, when it falls as a yellow insoluble powder, whose composition is 2NH Cl,PtCl. By heating this the chlorine and ammonia are expelled, and the platinum left behind in a porous mass, which is spongy platinum. To get the metal in a solid form, this porous mass is reduced to powder and washed. The powder, which is of a dull grey colour, is now submitted in a mould to hydraulic pressure, and it assumes the appearance of a metallic bar. This bar is heated in a wind furnace, and forged by hammering it upon its ends. Platinum possesses the same property as iron; it can be welded; that is, when hammered at a high temperature, the particles of the metal unite into a solid mass.

Deville and Debray procured solid platinum by submitting the grains of metal, previously purified by digesting in nitric acid, to fusion in a lime crucible, in the flame of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe.

Properties. Its specific gravity is very high, being only inferior to that of iridium. It does not tarnish under any circumstances when exposed to the air, and cannot be attacked by any simple acid. Hence it is much used in the laboratory for crucibles. Aqua regia, however, converts it into a chloride. Very large and expensive crucibles-some cost £2,000-are used to carry the condensation of sulphuric acid through its last stage. It possesses great ductility, and expands less by heat than any other metal. It has the peculiar power of condensing gases on its surface, and when a jet of hydrogen is directed upon a piece of spongy platinum it is ignited; because the oxygen condensed in the

pores of the platinum, being then in a more active condition, combines with the hydrogen, and the heat developed is sufficient to ignite the gas. This property is advantageously used in the Davy lamp. Above the wick is a coil of fine platinum wire, and when by any accident the flame is extinguished, the vapours of the hydro-carbons rising from the wick combine with the oxygen on the surface of the platinum, and thus the wire is rendered red-hot, and the lamp re-lighted. Platinum combines readily with other metals, and phosphorus at high temperatures.

When fused with potash or soda, in contact with air, it will oxidise. There are two oxides, platinous oxide (PtO) and platinic oride (PtO,). They are procured by the precipitation of corresponding salts by a regulated quantity of alkali. Both oxides are soluble in an excess of the alkali.

There are sulphides of a like composition to the oxides.
The chlorides are the most important salts.

When the metal is dissolved in aqua regia a red solution is obtained, which consists of a tetrachloride (PtCl), platinic chloride. When evaporated to dryness a salt is procured, which has two molecules of hydrochloric acid in it (PtCl H1) at 230° C. This acid is given off, and also two atoms of chlorine, leaving platinous chloride (PtCl). At a still higher heat the metal is reduced. Platinic chloride is of great service in analysis in determining the quantity of potash or ammonia present in a solution. It forms with both these, sparingly, soluble salts.

In the case of potash, when the salt is submitted to a red heat, metallic platinum and potassium chloride are left; but with the ammonia salt nothing but the metal remains. The action of ammonia on platinous chloride is remarkable. Many salts are formed by an atom of platinum replacing some of tho hydrogen of the ammonia; but these salts are of more interest in a theoretical than a practical light.

With platinic chloride any of the potassium salts give a yellow precipitate; but with sodium salts a brown hydrated oxide falls. With ammonia salts the yellow precipitate above alluded to appears, which on heating may be distinguished from the potassium precipitate. By this means these three alkalies may be recognised. Platinum is not reduced from its solutions as gold is by ferrous sulphate or oxalic acid.

The rarer metals associated with platinum do not require notice.

READINGS IN LATIN.-I.

SELECTIONS FROM CÆSAR.

THE student will now be anxious to read more lengthy extracts of the Latin authors, of which he has at present only come across separate sentences. The large number of these authors, and the great length of their writings, will prevent his gaining, except at the expenditure of a great deal of time and trouble, anything like a general acquaintance with their style and character; and, accordingly, it is with this object that we propose to give a series of extracts from those writers who are generally included in the course of study of this language. We shall take the different authors one by one, giving a slight sketch of the subject of their writings, and their special peculiarities of diction, and adding extracts from them for the student to translate. To each of the extracts will be appended short notes, explanatory of such difficulties as the student will not be likely to be able to solve merely by the aid of his Latin Dictionary and the Latin Lessons; while in each case a translation of one at least of the passages selected will be given along with the succeeding set of extracts, sometimes from original sources, sometimes from published translations of acknowledged merit. It is to be observed that these readings may be made useful in more ways than one for acquiring a knowledge of Latin. They should be first translated literally, and then rendered into idiomatic English; and this second translation should be retranslated into Latin, and when it is done, compared with the original. We cannot impress too strongly upon the student the advantages of this course of proceeding; he will find that his mind will gradually become stored with Latin phraseology, and his own style of writing Latin composition will have the advantage of being formed upon the best models. We should add that this system is most readily applicable to the prose extracts, though it will be found of great service also in versemaking.

CESAR.

Our first extracts are taken from the writings of Cæsar, an author whose works, from the simplicity of their style, are usually put into the hands of beginners. The author was the famous Roman general, Caius Julius Caesar, the founder of the Roman Empire, though never actually emperor himself. His chief warlike exploits were his subjugation of Gaul (now France and Switzerland) and Britain, and his best-known work, "The Commentaries on the Gallic War," is a brief compilation of the notes which he kept during the course of his campaigns. It has been observed of them that they are a series of sketches taken on the spot, having all the graphic power of a mastermind, and the vigorous touches of a master-hand." The narrative is clear and simple, and scarcely any difficulty in the language presents itself. The first extract is from an account of a battle with the Helvetii, who lived in the modern Switzerland and the south of France.

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CESAR. "DE BELLO GALLICO," Lib. I. cap. xxv. Cæsar, primum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu remotis equis, ut æquato omnium periculo2 spem fugæ tolleret, cohortatus suos,3 prælium commisit. Milites, e loco superiore pilis missis facile hostium phalangem perfregerunt. Ea disjectâ,' gladiis destrictis in eos impetum fecerunt. Gallis magno ad pugnam erat impedimento, quod, pluribus eorum scutis uno ictu pilorum transfixis et colligatis, quum ferrum se inflexisset, neque evellere neque, sinistra impeditâ, satis commode pugnare poterant, multi ut, diu jactato1 brachio, præoptarent" scutum manu emittere, et nudo corpore pugnare. Tandem vulneribus defessi, et pedem referre,12 et quod mons suberat circiter mille passuum,13 eo se recipere cœperunt. Capto monte et succedentibus nostris, Boii et Tulingi, qui hominum millibus circiter xv agmen hostium claudebant, et novissimis præsidio erant, ex itinere nostros latere aperto aggressi, circumvenere.

NOTES.

1. Suo agrees with conspectu. First out of his own sight, then out of the sight of all. The possessive adjectives, suus, meus, tuus, are used always in preference to the genitives, sui, mei, tui, of the personal pronouns. 2. Remotis equis, æquato periculo, abl. absolute. There are other examples in this extract.

3. Suos, his men: understand milites.

4. Prælium committere, to join battle, to engage. 5. Pilis, long javelins.

6. Phalangem, the thick array. The phalanx was an order of battle array in use among the Greeks, in which the soldiers were massed thick together; and thus it is applied by Cæsar to the thick mass in which the Gauls fought.

7. Disjectâ, cast different ways (dis jacio), dispersed.

NOTES.

1. Hibernorum (sc. castrorum), winter quarters; here used of the time spent in them.

2. Eo, thither, to the hiberna castra. 3. Exploratores, scouts.

4. Certior factus, he was informed; in the active, certiorem facio, I inform; lit., I make more sure.

5. Sedunorum, Veragrorum, names of tribes who lived in the neighbourhood of Geneva and the valley of the Rhone. 6. Id, it, refers to the next clause, ut subito Galli-caperent; it, namely, the fact of the Gauls' sudden determination.

7. Plenissimam, and that not at its full strength. The reason for its weakness is explained by the two following ablatives absolute. 8. Commeatus petendi. The participle in dus agreeing with the substantive is used by the Latin authors generally in preference to the gerund governing a case.

9. Iniquitatem (in-æquus), unevenness of the ground.

10. Suum, theirs; namely, the Gauls'. The reciprocals sui and suus always refer to the subject of the principal verb in the sentence, Here the subject of the principal verb, existimabant, is Galli understood. 11. Accedebat. The nominative to this verb is the sentence quoddolebant. There was this additional reason (lit., this was added)—supply for their defection-that they grieved.

12. Possessionis, genitive after causâ.

13. Finitimæ, neighbouring; i.e., to the Roman territory.

The next extract describes Cæsar's landing in Britain, which was not achieved without some difficulty. The Britons were drawn up on the shore to repel their attack, and prevent the possibility of their coming to land. The historian proceeds as follows :

CÆSAR.-" DE BELLO GALLICo," Lib. IV. cap. XXV. Quod ubi Cæsar animum advertit,' naves longas, quarum et species erat barbaris inusitatior, et motus ad usum expeditior, paullum removeri ab onerariis navibus et remis incitari et ad latus apertum hostium constitui, atque inde fundis," sagittis, tormentis, hostes propelli ac submoveri jussit: quæ res magno usui nostris fuit. Nam et navium figura, et remorum motu, et inusitato genere tormentorum permoti barbari cons. 'terunt, ac paullum modo pedem retulerunt. Atque nostris milit bus cunctantibus, maxime propter altitudinem maris, qui decime legionis aquilam1 ferebat, contestatus deos, ut ea res legioni feliciter eveniret: Desilite, inquit," commilitones, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prodere: ego certe meum reipublicæ atque imperatori12 officium præstitero. 13 Hoc quum magna voce dixisset, ex navi se projecit atque in hostes aquilam ferre cœpit." Tum nostri, cohortati inter se, ne tantum dedecus admitteretur, universi ex navi desiluerunt: hos item alii ex proximis navibus

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8. Destrictis (from de stringo, to strip off, like leaves off a branch), quum conspexissent, subsecuti hostibus adpropinquarunt.

with drawn swords. Anether abl. abs.

9. Gallis magno erat impedimento, it was a great hindrance to the Gauls. A double dative after erat.

10. Ut diu jactato, considering that their arms had long been tossed about. 11. Præoptarent, wished anxiously; præ, before anything else.

12. Pedem referre, to carry back the foot, to retreat. Compare pedem inferre, to march upon.

13. Mille passuum, a thousand paces, about our mile. The word mile owes its derivation to this.

14. Millibus, ablative of the instrument by which a thing is achieved. 15. Novissimis, the newest, so the last, the hindmost. Novissimis præsidio, a double dative. Compare Gallis impedimento, above.

The following describes the commencement of a war with some Alpine tribes :

CÆSAR.-"DE BELLO GALLICO," Lib. III. cap. ii. Quum dies hibernorum' complures transissent frumentumque co2 comportari jussisset, subito per exploratores3 certior factus est, ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concesserat, omnes noctu discessisse, montesque, qui impenderent, a maxima multitudine Sedunorum et Veragrorum teneri. Id aliquot de causis acciderat, ut subito Galli belli renovandi legionisque opprimendæ consilium caperent: primum, quod legionem, neque eam plenissimam,' detractis cohortibus duabus, et compluribus singillatim, qui commeatus petendis causa missi erant, absentibus, propter paucitatem despiciebant: tum etiam, quod propter iniquitatem loci, quum ipsi ex montibus in vallem decurrerent et tela conjicerent, ne primum quidem posse impetum suum1o sustineri existimabant. Accedebat," quod suos ab se liberos abstractos obsidum nomine dolebant: et Romanos non solum itinerum causa, sed etiam perpetuæ possessionis, 12 culmina Alpium occupare conari et ea loca finitimæ13 provinciæ adjungere, sibi persuasum habebant.

NOTES.

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1. Animum advertit, used for the compound animadvertit, is to be looked upon for the purposes of construction as one word, turned his mind to, observed, and governs quod, which thing, viz., the advantage which the Britons possessed in being drawn up on the shore. 2. Naves longæ, ships of war. So called from the shape in which they were built.

3. Expeditior, more handy, manageable.
4. Onerariis, ships of burden (onus).
5. Apertum, exposed, open to attack.

6. Fundis, slings.

7. Tormentis, engines for hurling (torqueo) missiles.

8. Magno usui nostris, a great aid to our men. Double dative after fuit. 9. Militibus cunctantibus, ablative absolute, when the soldiers were de laying.

eagle was the standard of the Roman legions). 10. Qui aquilam ferebat, he who bore the eagle, the standard-bearer (the This supplies the nominative to inquit.

11. Inquit is only used when the exact words of the speaker are quoted, and never stands as the first word in a sentence. Aio, I affirm, follows much the same rules.

12. Imperatori, the general; originally applied, as here, to the general of an army, who was invested with supreme military command (imperium). Afterwards it was used to denote the absolute sovereigns of Rome, the Emperors.

præstare alicui, to do one's duty by any one. 13. Officium præstitero, I will be sure to do my duty by. Officium The future perfect, I shall have, is used to give additional force, I shall certainly. 14. Aquilam ferre cœpit, went, standard in hand, against. 15. Cohortati, etc., having admonished one another not to allow of such a disgrace. PARSING EXERCISE.

Parse jussit, constiterunt, retulerunt, vultis, desiluerunt, sub

secuti.

CIVIL SERVICE PAPERS.-I.

INTRODUCTION.

It is the intention, in the series of papers that will follow upon the subject of the Civil Service, to explain as fully as is necessary for all practical purposes, not only what the Civil Service is, but how to get into it. The various branches of the service will be pointed out, their relative importance will be explained, and the most accurate information will be given as to the means of obtaining nominations, as to the examinations to be passed, as to the salaries given, and as to the nature of the duties which devolve upon successful candidates after admission into the service. The aim and object of this series of papers is to enable those who have not other means of knowing, to ascertain for themselves what the conditions of service are, and to put them in the way of working up to the standard of educational requirements, without being necessarily driven to employ expensive assistance; and to place in the hands of the thousands who draw the means of self-education from the POPULAR EDUCATOR, the further means of turning their education to account in an honourable and useful way.

The Civil Service is the office-staff of the country. Over every important department of State is placed a minister of the Crown responsible to Parliament, and changing with the Government; but, for the purposes of actual administration, there are under each minister a number of sub-departments which are charged with the execution of details, with carrying out the orders of the minister, and with the performance of all business naturally pertaining to his branch of government. Thus, the War Office, with its sub-departments, is charged with the transaction of all business pertaining to the army, the Admiralty with all naval matters, the Treasury with all affairs relating to the public income and expenditure. These offices are manned by persons on what is called the establishment, which includes both the directors and the doers of departmental business, the secretaries, heads of departments, and the clerks, assistants, and writers. The aggregate of these "establishments" is the Civil Service.

How does one get into it? Formerly, the process was perfectly easy for those who possessed influence enough to get nominations. Nomination carried with it the appointment; the idea-if there was any definite idea on the subject-being that the minister would not nominate any one who was not competent for the post. As a matter of fact, however, ministers did appoint persons who were often notoriously unfit; they never appointed any one because of special fitness, but gave nominations to their friends and those for whom their friends asked, without inquiring into the qualifications of the candidates. Appointments in the Civil Service were looked upon as a means of repaying political adherents for service done, and as a means also of providing for the needy sons of "good families" on friendly relations with the minister. Whether the public service was helped or not was a secondary consideration, and no steps were taken to justify, by examination or otherwise, the nomination of the minister. For some years before the Civil Service Commission was instituted, there was a practice in some of the offices by which nominees underwent a pro formâ examination, after admission, by the chief clerk of the department to which they were accredited. But this examination was of the very alenderest kind, and consisted more in ascertaining by whose interest the candidate had come in, than in finding out what ideas he had, or how much or how little his education had fitted him for the service.

In the year 1855 the principle was recognised that, in the interests of the public service, candidates for appointments should be subjected to examination after receiving a nomination, and not be appointed until the minister nominating should have had a certificate from the examiners of the fitness of the candidates. As an expression of this principle, the Civil Service Commission was issued to certain well-qualified persons, who were empowered to erect educational standards of efficiency, and to try all candidates by such standards. The principle of nomination was retained, but nominees were tested either with reference to the standard only, or with reference to their relative merits in a competitive examination. The Commissioners communicated with every branch of the public service, and ascertained from heads of offices the subjects in which candidates for the respective departments were required to be proficient.

The results we shall set forth at length under the different offices.

The Commissioners having ascertained what was wanted, arranged examinations accordingly, and the practice is now, when nominations are given, to send with them notice to attend before the Civil Service Commissioners, who arrange, as a matter of course, for the examination to take place. The offices of the Commission were in Dean's Yard, Westminster; they are now removed to Cannon Row.

As to patronage, the principle of throwing the public service open to general competition has not yet obtained. The patronage is in the hands of ministers, who bestow nominations where they wish to oblige. Some ministers make a rule of disobliging their personal friends, lest they should be charged with nepotism; others will not give except to personal friends, lest they should be charged with using their power for political purposes; some are amenable to both these influences; and a few lay down for themselves a rule which it is impossible to carry out, a rule of selecting from the applicants only those who are best qualified, irrespective of the interest recommending them. In seeking to obtain a Government appointment, the greatest discrimination should be used, both as to the place asked for and the influence to be worked in order to get a nomination. It is vain for a candidate personally unsuitable for a particular office to try to get into it: the minister will not nominate him. It is equally futile to set in motion influence which might avail for department No. 6, if department No. 1 is the department aimed at. Influence which would open the door of the Custom House or Excise Offices, might knock in vain for admission at the door of the Foreign or Home Offices; and interest that is an Open Sesame" at the Post Office might be powerless at the Admiralty or Treasury. As a rule, strong political interest is the most efficacious of all, in every department; and applica tions by the servants of the State, whether civil, naval, or military, are more likely to command attention than those of persons having no connection with the public service. Any title on the score of past services should be put prominently forward, and as for refusals in any case, it will not do to be discouraged by the stereotyped answer: "Your claims will be considered with those of others as opportunities occur." It will not do to be discouraged; it will not do to be put off the scent by it. Contra audentior ito must be the motto of those who would win in the race for appointments; they must not be abashed, nor must they go away ashamed. Let them remember the importunate widow.

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When the nomination has been received it will commonly be found that it is conditional on the candidate succeeding in a competitive examination with several other candidates. In the early days of examinations, and sometimes even now, it was only required of candidates that they should come up to a certain standard; but it is the general rule at present that no vacancy shall be filled but by the winner in a competition. It is, therefore, manifestly advantageous to offer to be examined in as many extra subjects as possible; for though it is absolutely necessary to come up to the standard, and no amount of excellence in extra subjects will make up for deficiencies in those prescribed, yet marks in extra subjects tell considerably when once the standard has been attained. As a means of preparation for the examination, it is well, if the expense can be afforded, to employ "a coach," or a tutor whose special business it is to educate candidates up to the mark of proficiency. A "coach knows the stock questions, and knows also the trick and style of each particular class of examination; and where cramming is necessary, it is almost indispensable to employ such help. But it is far from being essential. Any one who has thoroughly mastered his subjects, whether by private study or tuition, has no need to fear the most artfully-contrived questions; and to such a candidate the pass certificate is personally ten times more valuable and satisfactory than to him who has succeeded only through a process of mental forcing. It is quite competent to a diligent private student, working with such material as the POPULAR EDUCATOR furnishes and points out to him, to qualify himself for an examination of one of the better sort of offices in the Civil Service. In addition to testing his power by such specimens of examination papers as we have been enabled to provide (those that will be given are taken from the published reports of the Civil Service Commissioners themselves), let him get as many of the papers as possible, and make a habit of going right

through them, getting some able friend to look over his answers for him, and to set him right when in error. A little inquiry among Civil Service men, perhaps an application for information at the offices of the Commission itself, will enable any one to form a very accurate notion of the extent and character of the examination in each particular subject.

In dealing with the Government Offices for the purpose of these articles, the intention is to group them according to their standing, as more useful and instructive than according to their alphabetical order. Group I. includes the Treasury and the Home, Foreign, and Colonial Offices.

GROUP I. (FOUR OFFICES).

1.-TREASURY.

The business of the Treasury is to control the spending and revenue departments of Government; to decide upon all questions of principle affecting the revenue of the country; to prepare the ways and means, subject to the revision of Parliament, for carrying on the business of the country, and generally to influence the whole machinery of the administration.

Age of admission for clerks, established or supplemental, 18 to 25. Establishment divided into three classes, with three supplemental classes. The salaries are as follow:

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Senior Clerks

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I. CLERKS.

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2. Précis.

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Messengers, £85 to £150 a year.

Patronage in First Lord of the Treasury. The qualifications required are:

1. Handwriting and Orthography.

2. Arithmetic (including Vulgar and Decimal Fractions).

3. English Composition.

4. Précis.

5. Geography.

6. History of England.

7. First three Books of Euclid.

8. Latin, French, German, or Italian, the selection being left to candidate.

Supplemental clerks are examined in-1. Handwriting and orthography; 2. Arithmetic (including vulgar and decimal fractions); 3. English composition. Their pay is as above, and they have no claim to be put on the establishment when vacancies occur. Messengers, who must be between 21 and 25 years of age, are examined in-1. Reading; 2. Writing from dictation; 3. Elementary arithmetic.

2.-HOME OFFICE.

This office carries on the ministerial part of the government at home, is responsible for the preservation of the country's peace, and is the supreme authority on all questions of internal policy. Age of admission for established clerks, 18 to 25; for

1. Writing from Dictation.

4. German (translation and reading MS.).

II. CLERKS IN CHIEF CLERK'S DEPARTMENT.

1. Exercises designed to test Handwriting, accuracy of punctua tion, and orthography.

2. Arithmetic (including Vulgar and Decimal Fractions).

3. Geography (a general knowledge).

4. Book-keeping by Single Entry.

5. French (Translation).

III. ATTACHÉS.

1. Orthography and Handwriting.

2. General Intelligence,

3. Précis Writing.

4. Latin (Grammar and Translation into English).

5. Arithmetic (the first four rules, and Decimals-Colenso). 6. Euclid (Book I.).

7. Geography.

8. French (Grammar and Translation into English).
9. German (Grammar).

10. Constitutional History of England [Text-books, "Blackstone's
Commentaries (Kerr's edition of 1862), and Hallam's Con-
stitutional History of England].

11. A general knowledge of the Political History of Europe and of the United States of North America, from the Treaty of Paris, in 1815, to the Treaty of Villafranca, in 1860, comprising an acquaintance with the most important international transactions during that period.

extra clerks, 17 to 35. Establishment divided into three classes, of a Commission as Third Secretary and that of a Commission as Second A second examination must be undergone in the interval between the grant and supplemental clerks. Pay :

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3. French (Grammar, Translation into English, Translation into French, and Conversation).

4. German (Grammar, and Translation into English).

(If the Candidate between his first and second examination has not resided a reasonable time-twelve months, for instance-in Germany, he may substitute

Patronage in Secretary of State for the Home Department. for German some other foreign language besides French). Qualifications:

1. Handwriting and Orthography.

2. Arithmetic (including Vulgar and Decimal Fractions).

3. English Composition.

4. Geography.

5. English History.

6. Latin.

7. French.

5. Political History of Europe, a general knowledge of the Political History of Europe, and of the United States of North America, from the Treaty of Versailles, in 1783, to the Treaty of Villafranca, in 1860, comprising the most important international transactions during that period.

6. Political Economy (a general knowledge to be acquired from Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," and Mill's "Political Economy").

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1. Languages and Literature of Greece and Rome.

2. Languages and Literature of France, Germany, and Italy. 3. Modern History, including that of the British Colonies and Possessions; Exercises in English Composition, designed to test purity and accuracy of style.

4. Elements of Constitutional and International Law; Elements of Political Economy.

5. Pure and mixed Mathematics, not including the highest

branches: Accounts and Book-keeping.

Of the five classes of subjects thus defined, Candidates are at liberty to select any number not exceeding three in which they desire to be examined. II. TEMPORARY REGISTRY CLERKS.

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referred to the examination papers which are published by the authority of the Civil Service Commissioners, and which are readily supplied to all who ask for them.

EXERCISES IN EUCLID.—I.

THE question is frequently asked, What is the utility of the geometrical element in mathematical studies? Without in any

way attempting to discuss its merits, we content ourselves with giving the only satisfactory answer which can be given, that such studies are pursued, not for their results, but for the intellectual habits which they generate. The power to apprehend and the power to convince are both strengthened; the habit of clear and consecutive reasoning is developed by the successive stages through which the mind is conducted in the course of a geometrical investigation. It is our purpose, therefore, to aid our readers by giving them a series of exercises upon the various propositions of Euclid, consisting principally of "riders" which may be deduced from them. Each article will take a certain number of propositions, and the riders given will be deduced from them without assuming any subsequent ones. At the conclusion of each article the ground to be covered by its successor will be stated, and the enunciations given of those riders which will be proved, that the student may, if he so please, exercise himself beforehand, by attempting their solution. It may be mentioned here that the term "rider" is applied to a deduction from any proposition of Euclid because the deduction is borne to or supported by the mathematical reasoning worked out in the proposition, as a horseman, or rider, is supported or carried by the horse that he bestrides; or, in other words, that the proposition carries the deduction on top of it, as it were, pretty much as the horse carries its rider. This explanation of a term which is familiar enough to any Cambridge man, may be neces sary for the information of many of our self-taught students who now meet with the apparently singular but decidedly appropriate expression for the first time.

We assume a knowledge of definitions, axioms, and postulates. Definitions are the explanations of terms to be used in the course of investigation; axioms are statements of things obvious to common sense; postulates are statements of things requisite, without which the investigation cannot be carried on. All those requisite for the first book are given at the commencement of any ordinary edition of Euclid's Elements, a book which, we presume, is in the possession of all who intezd to follow us in these exercises. Those who have not yet provided themselves with a copy may obtain a useful edition at the office of the POPULAR EDUCATOR.*

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It will be seen that some of the propositions are headed 'Problem," some "Theorem." Strictly speaking, a "theorem of some geometrical difficulty, or a method of executing some is the proof of a geometrical fact; a "problem" is the solution geometrical device which may aid us in the solution of "theorems." The riders which we shall give will be some "problems," some "theorems." In either case the method of solution may be thus indicated. We have certain given facts, and a certain end to be deduced from them. Taking first the facts, endeavour to argue from them towards the required end. Then, assuming the required end to be accomplished, endeavour to argue back from it to the original facts; and if some common ground can be found in which these processes meet in one, the problem is solved or the theorem is proved. Thus, if we were endeavouring to argue out for ourselves Prop. I., Book I., we have given a straight line A B, and have to find a point c, such that C A, C B, and A B shall be all equal. Assuming this accomplished, we see that A is the centre of a circle passing through B and σ; and B is the centre of a circle passing through A and c. Thence our method is obvious. Let us apply this method to the following proposition :PROPOSITION I.-If in the figure of Euclid I. 1 (Fig. 1), the circles cut again in F, and the line C F cut A B in G ;

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circle (Def. 15). And for the same reason BC, B F are equal. Join AF, BF; then A C, AF are equal, being radii of the same

Cassell's Euclid: being the First Six Books, with the Eleventh and Twelfth of EUCLID. Crown 8vo, stiff covers, 1s.; cloth, 1s. 6d. Key to ditto, 4d.

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