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hero, Eneas, after the taking of Troy by the Greeks, his landing in Italy, his wars with the native tribes, and final settlement. All these are written in the Heroic or Hexameter rhythm; and in addition to them Virgil composed several other short pieces in different metres which have come down to us, but are not so generally read. The chief characteristics of Virgil's style are his polish, ingenuity, and skill. He cannot lay claim to any great originality, for both his subjects and his method of treatment are alike taken from Greek models, though his writings contain passages of great beauty and true poetical sentiment; but, like our English Pope, he remodelled and put into shape the metre he employed, which up to his time had been rugged and unpolished. The Bucolics, or Eclogues-for by the latter name they are more generally known-may be described as scenes of pastoral life taken from the poetical point of view, and though very beautiful, they are totally unnatural, and the characters in them have been cleverly compared to the ladies and gentlemen in the garb of shepherds and shepherdesses that we see sometimes in English family pictures. While they speak in many cases the sentiment of Italians of Virgil's day, all the scenery and surroundings are most distinctly Greek, and the poems are, in fact, very close copies of the pictures of life found in some of the Greek writers, the very names employed being Greek. Our first extract is taken from the seventh Eclogue, which represents an improvisatorial trial of musical skill between two shepherds.

VIRGIL.-Ec. VII. 1-19.

Forte sub argutâ consederat ilice Daphnis,

Compulerantque greges Corydon et Thyrsis in unum,
Thyrsis oves, Corydon distentas lacte capellas,
Ambo florentes ætatibus, Arcades ambo,
Et cantare pares, et respondere parati.

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113. Bacchus. The god of the vine, used here for the vine itself; se we find Ceres used for corn, Vulcanus for jire, Mars for war, and Minerva for intellect.

115. Geloni, a tribe inhabiting the neighbourhood of the Dnciper; their country is the modern Ukraine.

116. Divisæ, etc., countries are divided among trees-i.e., each tr has its own country.

117. Solis. To the Sabeans alone the frankincense tree belongs. The Sabeans inhabited part of Arabia.

The third extract is from the Eneid, and is the celebrated description of Fama (Rumour).

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Huc mihi, dum teneras defendo a frigore myrtos,
Vir gregis ipse caper deerraverat; atque ego Dapinim
Aspicio. Ille ubi me contra videt, "Ocius," inquit,
"Huc ades, o Meliboe; caper tibi salvus et hædi;
Et si quid cessare potes, requiesce sub umbra.

Monstrum horrendum, ingens, cui quot sunt corpore pluma
Tot vigiles oculi subter, mirabile dictu,

10

Huc ipsi potum venient per prata juvenci;

Hic virides sacrâ prætexit arundine ripas

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1. Argutâ, shrill. The epithet has reference to the sound of the wind in the branches, and may be translated whispering.

2. In unum, together, or into one place; supply locum.

3. Oves governed by compulerat understood, from compulerant in the previous line.

4. Arcades. Arcadia was looked upon as the land of pastoral poetry, and so Arcades is used as synonymous with poetæ.

5. Pares goes with parati, both equally prepared to, or it may be construed with cantare, equals in singing, an irregular construction, as if it were 64 pares in cantando." Vir gregis, the monarch of the herd.

6. Mihi. This is called the dativus ethicus, or dative of reference. Here it is used in much the same sense as the possessive meus, and may be construed with caper. Defendo is used in Latin in two senses (1) to defend, as here; (2) to ward off. Defendit æstatem is used by Horace to mean wards off the heat.

7. Atque is generally used to express some sudden change: and lo! on a sudden I see Daphnis.

9. Tibi, used as mihi in line 6.

11. Ipsi, of their own accord; a frequent use of this pronoun. 14. Quid facerem ? What could I do?

NOTES.

173. Libyæ. The ancient name for the northern part of Africa. 179. Cœus and Enceladus were two of the giants of the Greek mythology.

180. Pedibus, an ablative of reference, swift of foot and untiring of wing, "The ablative denotes that part of the subject with regard to which something is predicated of the subject: ager pedibus, weak in the feet." (Madvig, "Latin Grammar," 253.)

181. Cui quot sunt, etc., who has, for every feather on her body, a watchful eye beneath, for every eye, etc.

184. Cœli medio terræque, midway between heaven and earth; so we find locum medium utriusque," a place midway between both (Cæsar, Bel. Gal. I. 34).

186. Luce, in the daylight, by day; opposed to nocte, both ablatives of time.

We subjoin a translation of Extract 3, from Cæsar, in our last Readings in Latin:

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CESAR." ON THE WAR IN GAUL," Book IV., cap. xiv. And when Cæsar observed this he gave orders to move the war-galleys some little distance from the transports, and to row them up and station them opposite to the exposed side of the enemy, as their appearance was somewhat strange to the barbarians and their movements more handy for his purpose, and with slings, arrows, and engines to attack the enemy and drive them from the position. And this manœuvre was a great help to our men, as the barbarians, amazed at the shape of the galleys and the motion of the oars, and the strange nature of the engines, halted, and gradually retreated. And as our soldiers hung back, chiefly on account of the depth of the sca, the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, having prayed to the gods that what he was about to do might have a prosperous issue, called out, "Leap, comrades, unless you would betray the standard to the enemy: I at least will surely do my duty by the state and our general!" And having spoken thus in a loud voice, he leaped from the vessel and went, standard in hand, against the enemy. Then our men, having admonished one another not to allow of such a disgrace, leaped down in a body 110 from the vessel, and when the men on the ships next them saw them, they also followed them and approached the enemy.

16. Et, etc. And on the other hand there was a contest-Corydon against Thyreis-a great one. The sentence Corydon cum Thyrside is put in apposition with certamen, which it explains. 19. Alternos.

Their Muses wished to remember alternate strains, and therefore to recall them to the minds of the shepherds.

Our next extract is from the 2nd Georgic, which treats

the culture of trees.

VIRGIL.-GEORG. II. 109-117.

Nec vero terræ ferre omnes omnia possunt.
Fluminibus salices, crassisque paludibus alni
Nascuntur, steriles saxosis montibus orni;

of

LESSONS IN SHORTHAND.-XII.

LIST OF BEST OUTLINES.

177. To understand the following mode of representing outlines by means of types, the reader must be familiar with the consonants of the Phonotypic Alphabet, as given in the last column in the Table of Consonants, paragraph 7, Lesson II. The letters placed after any word in the following List, represent the corresponding phonographic or shorthand letters in that Table. When two, three, or four letters are placed together, without a space between them, they represent a SINGLE STROKE together with a circle (s), tick (h), or hook (for 1, r, n, f, v, or tion); or a SINGLE STROKE that is halved (to represent an additional tor d) or doubled (to represent an additional tr or dr); ; but k, n, with a space between thus, ks, kn, pt mean represent

The DOWNWARD 7, r, h are marked by SMALL CAPITALS. Italic is used to show:-1, The stroke s; 2, the upward f, fl; 3, the EXTRA-alphabetic curves for fr, vr, Or, dr, fl, vl; 4, a joined vowellike sign (< or >) for w. (S standing alone, as in courtesy, "kr t s," necessarily means the stroke s.)

The learner should write this list of words in shorthand, inserting the vowels, and that he may know if he has correctly interpreted the phonotypes, he should send a column or two to some member of the Phonetic Society for examination. When he can translate the outlines readily and correctly, he should, for the sake of practice, write out the list, making each word six times. To simplify the Table for the learner, the positions which some of the outlines would take in the Reporting Style are not marked.

Note.-During the publication of these Shorthand Lessons in the POPULAR EDUCATOR, a course of experiments in writing has been instituted by Mr. Pitman, in conjunction with the Phonetic Society, and it is found that no benefit results to the writer from representing w by two shorthand signs, as in Lessons II. and V. The heavy downstroke is therefore appropriated to another use, and is made to represent the double consonant rk, this being the most frequent diphthongal consonant of which is the basis; as a heavy m is made to represent mp. The proposal to write in all cases by the light upstroke commencing with a hook, was made last December, and the question was settled in April. The history of this further slight improvement in Phonography will be found in the Phonetic Journal for 17th and 24th April, 1869. Abandon...bn dn abrupt...b r pt

certainly...srt n L certificate...srt f kt

chairman...çr mn challenge...cl nj character...kr k tr charcoal...g rk 1 charge...grį

abstinence...bs tn ns

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charger...çr jr

acutely...k tl

charm...gr m

advert...d vrt (see divert)

chart...g Rt

agent...jn t (see giant) charwoman...gr wmn

altitude...lt t d (see church...gr g

latitude)

America...mrk

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circular...srk 1 R

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conform...f Rm conscience...f ns conscientious...j n fs consist...sst consonant...sn nt

constituent...st (loop)

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attentive...tnt v

comfort...(dot com) frt

Australasian...s tr 1 fn

counter...knt R

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commerce...k mrs commercial...k mr fl commissariat...k ms rt commission...k mfn commotion...k mfn (In the following words,

as far as converse, write a dot for the prefix, at the commencement of the first consonant.) communicate...n kt communion...nn companion...pn n comparatively...prt vl competitor...pt tr confederate...f d rt

confer...f R

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dilapidation...dlp dfn headland...h d lnd director...dr k tr directory...dr k tr discourage..ds krj (62) discretion..s krfn (62) distant...ds tnt distribute...ds tr bt

disturb...ds trb divert...dvrt (see advert) diverge...dv rj

divine...dv n division...d vzn dormant...dr mnt

doubtful...dt fl doubtless...dt LS Economy...kn m efficient...f/nt effrontery...frnt r

embarrass...mb rs embellish...mb 1/ embody...mb d emperor...mprr

energetic...nr jt k enlighten...n 1 tn enliven...nl vn

enormous...nr ms

hereditary...hr dt r heretofore...hRt fr heritage... rt j hermit...ha mt Highlands... Inds highlander... Indr(111)

hobby...h b

hold...h ld holiday...h 1 d Holland...h Ind home...hm homily...Hm 1

honorary.. nr r

hook...H k

intér...nt E

interpret...nt & prt intone...n tn

intoxicate...nt ks kt

January...j nr jealousy...jls journey...jr n Kindly...knd! kindle...k nd L Landscape...Inds k p lark...l rk

latitude...lt td (ses

altitude) latitudinarian...It td nra laziness...l z ns

length...Lŋ lesson... Ls n linear...In K lincality...In It linen...L nn lion...L n

liturgy...lt rj

London...Ln dn

horizontal...h rs nt L long...LI

horn...hRn

horrible...hr bi

horror...he R

horse...hrs

hospital...hs pt 1

Londoner...Lud nr

lyric...lrk

Madam...md m

mainly...m n L

man-servant...m ns rvat

horticulture...hat k ltr march...m r ç

host...hst (loop) hostage...hs tj

hound...h nd

enraptured...n rp trd hot...ht
enthusiasm...n zs m hotel...htl
enthusiast...n zst
enthusiastic...n zs tk hull...hl
entire...nt R
entirety...n trt
esteem...st m
exaggerate...ks j rt
excessive...kss V

human...hmn humanity...hm n t humble...hm bl humbug...hmb hundred...n drd expeditiously...ks pd fs 1 hunter...h ntr extemporé...ks t mp r hurl...hr L Facetious...fs/s falsity...f Ls t

hurricane...hr kn hurried...h rd

farewell...f R1

hurt...hrt

fashionable...ffn bl

fault...f lt

favoured...f vrd favourite...f vrt financial... fn n sl felicity...f ls t flesh...fl flourish...fl B foolish...f L

forbid...fr bd

hydrogen... Hd rjn hypocrisy...p kr s hypocrite...p krt Identify...idnt f

ignominious...g n m ns ignoramus...g nr ms ignorant...g nrnt illegal...11 gl

martial...mrfl

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forasmuch...frs m c

illegitimate...1 1jt mt

ostentatious...st nt js

illusive... Ls v

overhead...vr d

imbecile...mbs 1

Patriarch...pt rrk

forego...f R g

imitative...mt tv

parlour...prl R

former...fr mr

forsake...fr sk

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impersonal...m prs nl

patient...p/nt patron...p trn pattern...pt rn persecutor...p rs k tr

garden...grd n

impertinent..mp rt nnt impiety...mp t

genteel...j nt L

immoral...m mr 1

immaterial...m mt r 1 partner...prt nr

Frenchman...frn g mn immortal...m m rt L

countenance...knt n ns gentile...jn t l

courtesy...kr ts coward...k rd creator...kr tr

creature...krt r criminal...kr m nl criticism...kr tss m cultivate...klt vt culture...klt R Debar...d br declare...d kl R declared...d kl rt

defeat...df t defect...df kt delivery...dl vr demonstrate...d mn stt department..d prt mnt

gentle, gently...jnt L get...g t giant...j nt (see agent) giantess...j n ts golden...gld n govern...g vrn governor...g vr nr grandfather...gr nd far

gratitude...grt td guardian...gr dn Hammer...h mr handle...nd L (When neither the stroke nor the tick his ex

pressed, the dot h should be inserted when vocalising.) handsome...nds m

impoverish...mp vr indebted...nd ta

person...p rs n persuade... prs wd pertinent...p rt ant

petrify...pt rf

independent...nd pnd nt Philadelphia...dlf

index...nd ks
indicate...nd kt
indolent...nd Int
indulgent...n d 1 jnt
inefficient...n ffnt
inevitable...n vt bl
inferior...n f R r
inhabit...nh bt (124)
inhabitant...nh b tnt
initial...nfl
innate...n nt
insurance...n frns
intelligence...nt L jns private... pry t
intemperance...n t mp rns profit...prf t
intend...nt nd
intention...nt nfn

philosopher...fls f
photograph...ft grf
photography...ft gr f
ponder... pnd &
poor...p R (see pure)
potato...pt t
prefer...prf r
prejudice...pr jd s
premier...pr mr
prevent...prv nt
primer...pr mr

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K. Sanrious, sanction, distinct, distinction.

179. TICK THE.-The, the most frequent word in the English

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182. Transaction should be written at length form would clash with transgression.

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PHRASEOGRAPHY.

object

objection

publish-ed

publication

Phonographer

Phonographic

Phonetic Society

Temperance Soc.,

rather

represent-ed

representation

representative

[etc.

something Spelling Reform

subject subscription

surprise

together

thankful

transcript

transgress

transgression (152) understood

whatever

whenever

because the contracted

183. In longhand, swift writers join all the letters of a word tolanguage, may be expressed by a short slanting stroke joined together, and sometimes write several words without lifting the pen. the preceding word, and generally written downward; thus,

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in the, for the, of the, with the, to the; but when more convenient, it is written upward; thus, at the, on the. The first stroke of on the is made sloping to keep the sign distinct from I. (The scarce diphthong ay should be accompanied with the nominal consonant, thusay, to prevent its being read as on the.) The tick the never BEGINS a phrase.

180. OF THE.-The connective phrase "of the," is intimated by writing the words between which it occurs NEAR TO EACH OTHER, thus showing that the one is of the other; thus,

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In Phonography also several words may often be united. This practice, which is called Phraseography, gives great assistance to the writer in following a rapid speaker. The following examples will show how other useful phraseograms may be formed.

and have

and the *

as well as ~could not

LIST OF PHRASEOGRAMS.

bit is
b, it is not

it is said

it should be

may be

of course

subject of the work.

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181. A or AN.-A or an is joined to the preceding word by 1 or -; on a. The forms to a, are not recommended; the words should be written

with a, Lata,

L

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The ad

separately.

182. The pupil is recommended to be sparing in his use of contractions in the commencement of his practice. In the Reporting Style, every legible contraction may be brought into use. vanced writer may use the following contractions. Some consist I will * merely in joining the prefix or affix to the rest of the word. Words marked (*) are written above the line.

e

is not

should be

-----to be

we are we have

we have not we have seen

which cannot

you can

you cannot

you may

you must

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Prepositus

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Presbyter

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Probare

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Pullus

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Puppis

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Recipere

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Regnare

Rotundus

to rule
round

Sapor
Supernus
Tegula
Traditor

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a number

oil

a villager
a basket
a step
needy

a stranger

nom
nombre
nourrice

huile

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Cartoon, a drawing on large paper,
a painting.

Cartouch, a case for bils or cart-
ridges.
Cartrage or Cartridge, a cise for Ratio
grapsinder.
Cartulary, a register, a monastic re-
cord.

From BARRE, a bar (the same word), come to bar, to hinder.
Barricade, a fence or temporary for- | Barrier, a boundary or obstacle.
tification.
Barring-out, a boyish game.
The following are a few separate instances:-Bottle. brilliant,
escape, engagement, flask, forage, flank, guarantee, guard, gar-
nish, grimace, hash, harangue, hardy, lodge, marquis, mason,
packet, robe, wardrobe, saloon, supper, dinner (breakfast is
Saxon), tirade, troubadour. The words which denote the vari-
ous officers in civil government are mostly Norman-French, as
might be expected from the conquest of England by William the
Norman; e.g., king and earl are Saxon, but prince, duke,
marquis, baron, count, mayor, etc., are of French origin, at least
so far as the English is concerned.

The ignorance of older philologists may be exemplified in the derivation which they gave of parliament. Parliament is a word of French extraction, from the word parler, to speak; the ment, as the student now knows, is merely the terminational suffix. But the wisdom of our forefathers made ment into mind, and stated that the parliament was so called because men there freely spoke their mind! The history of this derivation is no better than the philology, for in the French parliament liberty of speech was not predominant.

French words have been a medium by which Latin words have come into the English: the extent of our obligation to both those languages can be known only when we have seen specimens of this transference.

FRENCH WORDS AS A MEDIUM FROM THE LATIN TO THE

Visus

taste

supreme
a tile

recevoir
regner
rond

saveur

souverain

tuile

traitre
vue

prove. poultry, poop. reason. receive.

reiga. round.

sovereign. tile.

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Many French terms are employed in English either in their native form or slightly altered, and of these some even in France are of modern origin. We have dragoon from the name of the soldiers with whom Louis XIV. carried on the war, which received the name of his dragonades, against his French Protestant subjects in order to compel them to become Catholics. From the noun dragoon we have the verb to dragoon into. A roué, in slang language, a black-leg, is literally a wretch who deserves to be broken on the wheel-metaphorically one who has the same manners as the courtiers of the profligate Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, who is said to have given the name to his abandoned associates. Guillotine, a term which we derive from France, is the name of an instrument for decapitating political offenders; it received its name from the inventor, and was first used amidst the early horrors of the first revolution in that country. Translations from the French have led to the incoming amongst us of many French terms and phrases, greatly to the corruption of our mother English. Formerly, translations were said to be "done into English." The phrase is not inappropriate, for many translations from the French are miserably done, a large portion of every page consisting of French words and idioms in an English dress-resembling a Frenchman aiming to speak English by putting on an English costume. Commonplace novels, too, have brought into vogue many Gallicisms. Most blameworthy is this defacement and corruption of our language, when they are perpetrated by historians, of whom better things might be expected. This practice has been well taken off by the Spectator, in No. 185 of that work, which is strongly recommended to the perusal of those who possess it or can readily borrow it.

Having read the remarks in the Spectator, and read also what has been written in this lesson, let the student proceed to write an essay on

THE FRENCH ELEMENT IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Words with their proper Prepositions.

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roughly acquainted with those authors which are in every man's mouth. For instance, it is very common to quote Shakespeare; but it makes a sort of stare to quote Massinger. I have very little credit for being well acquainted with Virgil; but if I quote Silius Italicus, I may stand some chance of being reckoned a great scholar. In short, whoever wishes to strike out of the great road, and to make a short cut to fame, let him neglect Homer, and Virgil, and Horace, and Ariosto, and Milton, and, instead of these, read and talk of Fracastorius, Sannazarius, Lorenzini, Pastorini, and the thirty-six primary sonnetteers of Bettinelli; let him neglect everything which the suffrage of ages has made venerable and grand, and dig out of their graves a set of decayed 'scribblers, whom the silent verdict of the public has fairly condemned to everlasting oblivion. If he complains of the injustice with which they have been treated, and call for a new trial with loud and importunate clamour, though I am afraid he will not make much progress in the estimation of men of sense, he will be sure to make some noise in the crowd, and to be dubbed a man of very curious and extraordinary erudition.-Sydney Smith.

THE BIBLE.

The Bible is the only book which God has ever sent, the only one he will ever send, into this world. All other books are frail and transient as time, since they are only the registers of time; but, the Bible is All durable as eternity, for its pages contain the records of eternity.

other books are weak and imperfect, like their author, man; but the

Bible is a transcript of infinite power and perfection. Every other volume is limited in its usefulness and influence, but the Bible came forth conquering and to conquer, rejoicing as a giant to run his course, and like the sun, " there is nothing hid from the heat thereof." The Bible only, of all the myriads of books the world has seen, is equally important and interesting to mankind. Its tidings, whether of peace or of war, are the same to the poor, the ignorant and the weak, as to the rich, the wise, and the powerful. the only universal classic, the classic of all mankind, of every age and country, of time and eternity.—Grimké.

The Bible indeed is

For

GEOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.-XIV. IN Problem XXXIX., page 24, it was stated that the door at the side was at an angle of 40° with the wall upon which it hung, and that the wall was perpendicular with the PP. The rule for finding the VP in this particular case was explained. We wish quently happens that the angle of the given line or object is now to say more upon this part of the subject. It very frestated as being at an angle with another plane, or with another object either parallel or at a right angle with the PP. example, the wall of a building may retire at an angle of 30° with the PP, and some other projection may extend from it at a given angle with this wall, which it can do either from a horizontal or a perpendicular connection. We must then know how to determine its angle with the PP. It is true it is not always necessary to know the angle of the PP for the sake of executing the drawing, as the given angle can be in some cases constructed upon the vanishing line of the plane with which the projection is connected instead of the PP; but we cannot pass over this way of stating the question, as many have imagined a difficulty without any substantial reason for doing so. It may be necessary to know the angle the projection makes with our position for reasons altogether independent of the drawing; it may be to answer the inquiry of an employer; or the draughtsman, knowing how the parts of a building are placed with each other, may wish to satisfy himself as to the appearance the whole will have when viewed from some particular point. But what

is of more immediate importance to us now is, that it opens out a new way to explain the difficulties that arise sometimes from a confusion in the mind respecting the treatment of vanishing lines, vanishing planes, and vanishing points, all these being so closely combined in the principles and practice of construction. Thus, by considering them under every possible connection, we become more familiar with them, and they are more readily comprehended in their details, however numerous they may be, and also when united together as a whole.

1st. Suppose a retiring wall A forms an angle of 30° with the PP, and there is a projection from this wall at a right angle with A, the projection will then be at an angle of 60° with the PP, or with our position.

2nd. Suppose a retiring wall at an angle of 30° forms an angle of 120° with a projecting wall, the projecting wall will also be at an angle of 30° with our position in the opposite direction.

3rd. Suppose the retiring wall at an angle of 30° with the PP forms an angle of 30° with the projecting wall, the latter will be at an angle of 60° with the PP (see Fig. 66). We do not say

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