come." No error is more fatal to accurate or swift transcription. And it is therefore that these phonographic magazines are so helpful to the student. They accustom him to read. They do more: they accustom his eye to correct spelling and correct form-both matters of prime necessity in all shorthand work. The reader of Dickens cannot forget how poor David Copperfield, after travelling a weary way through some antique system of stenography, until he was able to follow with difficulty Tom Traddles' impassioned declamation, suddenly found out that he had to retrace the whole journey, because he could not decipher a phrase of what he had written. So will it be with the student of Phonography unless he accustom his eye to read that which his hand may so readily be taught to trace; and in this view of the case we are by no means sure that we ought not to have included the phonographic magazines among the strictly educa tional literature of the system. had compactly bound in one volume, contain all that is necessary to induct the learner into a knowledge of the art as it is used in correspondence and business, and for making notes and memoranda. For the actual work of professional reporting, where greater speed and consequently greater brevity are requisite, there is, as will be seen directly, another set of books which, while utilising all that has gone before, develop the system almost indefinitely, rendering it possible to follow with ease the most rapid speaker. While grounding the student in Phonography proper, however, as distinct from the Reporting branch of the art, the three works we have mentioned are not the only ones belonging to this period of study. There is an invaluable little volume bound in roan (price 5s.), upon which immense labour must have been expended, entitled "A Phonographic and Pronouncing Vocabulary of the English Language." It holds to Phonography the same relation which a dictionary holds to a language. In it are to be found the easiest and most legible methods of writing the longest 207. In the Bibliothecal division we have a proof at once of the and most awkward words. None but those who in the earlier stages capabilities of Phonography and the universality of its use among those of their learning have availed themselves of this useful little volume, who write shorthand. Nothing but a very large constituency of know the difficulties it smooths over, or the ease and clearness it phonographers could repay the enterprise which has brought into esimparts to their writing. At this period, too, certain of the shorthand istence so many handsome library volumes, all beautifully lithographed magazines give useful help to the student, but of these we shall speak in shorthand-some in plain Phonography, and some in Reporting. presently. First we have a magnificent edition of the Holy Bible, to be had 205. We now come on to the Educational literature of the "Report- either in roan gilt or morocco gilt, in size an octavo, and, though ing Style "—that is, the style which is indispensable to the intending written in ordinary Phonography, not thicker than a printed reference reporter. First of all there is the "Phonographic Reporter, or Re- Bible such as one carries to his place of worship in his pocket. Then porter's Companion" (to be had either in boards or cloth), which is we have, similarly bound and got up, a Church Service, and a Book to reporters' Phonography what the "Manual" is to ordinary Pho- of Common Prayer, the former in Reporting, the latter in Phonogra nography. It lays down principles for shortening the system, gives phy. The Bible complete is in Phonography, but parts of it, as for additional grammalogues, leads the learner further into the labour- iustance the New Testament, and some other portions, are published saving paths of phraseography, and closes with a number of admirably separately in handsome bindings in an easy Reporting Style. Nor is arranged exercises. As with the "Manual" so with the "Reporter's our library yet complete. Next in order we have "Bunyan's PilCompanion" it contains all that the student absolutely requires to grim's Progress," handsomely bound in cloth, with gilt lettering and know. But in the same manner as the "Vocabulary" supplements edges, a "History of Shorthand” in cloth and in roan gilt, “ Macauthe "Manual," so are there other works which supplement the lay's Essays" complete in one volume, Dr. Johnson's "Rasselas," the "Reporter," and lighten the labour of practice. One of these is the "Dairymau's Daughter," an able "Prize Essay on Teaching Phono"Phonographic Phrase Book," which contains, together with a pre-graphy," "Extracts from Life, its Nature, Varieties and Phenomena," liminary essay on the principles of phraseography, somewhere between by Grindon, and "Hart's Orthography," a reprint of a scarce work three and four thousand useful phrases, written, after the manner of of the sixteenth century preserved in the British Museum. All these the "Vocabulary," in such a way as to combine the maximum of case latter works are in cloth bindings, and together form a handsome with the maximum of clearness. And there is a "Reporter's Assis- phonographic library. Besides these, however, there are a number of tant," forming a most valuable key to the reading of reporting Pho- works, too numerous to catalogue, in paper covers. We single out nography after it is written. The tyro may often boggle for a long two-"Selections from Goldsmith's Poetical Works," beautifully time over some word whose consonants he has written legibly enongh, lithographed with fancy borders round each page, and Gray's "Elegy but whose meaning, in the absence of the vowels, he cannot decipher. in a Country Churchyard," wherein the shorthand is interlined with The "Reporter's Assistant" gives him a list of all the words that the a longhand interpretation of it. The remaining tracts consist of puzzling sign can by any possibility stand for. It is a most useful essays, tales, addresses, etc., and are written some in Reporting and book for the beginner-a crutch which will enable him to walk with some in Phonography. ease while his limbs are yet weak. Two other works-the "Reporter's Reading Book" and the "Reporter's Guide "-complete, with a few minor exceptions, the Educational literature of the "Reporting Style" of Phonography. The first contains elaborate reading lessons in shorthand, with a longhand key, enabling the student to practise from dictation and compare his work with a recognised standard of good Phonography afterwards. The second is filled with every sort of technical information concerning the preparation of copy for the press and the correction of proofs. Both are of the utmost value to the intending reporter. 208. The fourth department of phonographic literature must be dismissed in a sentence or two. It consists mainly of tracts and pamphlets illustrative of the advantages of Phonography-wisely urging the young man setting out in life to master it, and pointing out the thousand and one ways in which it may be made subservient to the daily necessities even of those who can conceive of no present use for it. Some of these tracts are reprints of publications or speeches from America and the colonies; others have their origin nearer home. Others, again, are the production of the fertile brain and facile pen of the venerable inventor of Phonography, Mr. Isaac Pitman, who de 206. Turning to the periodical literature of Phonography, we find scends into the vale of years, not only accompanied by the gratitude that the system boasts no less than seven magazines, two of which ap- of thousands whose labours he has lightened, but cheered by the con pear weekly, and five monthly; and as we write, an advertisement of a sciousness that he has benefited millions who, as they read their new one, The Phonographic Pulpit and Sacred Repertory, meets our morning paper, little dream that they are indebted to a still living eye. They are all replete with articles which combine instruction benefactor for the accuracy, the speed, and to some extcut the cheap with entertainment. Some of them contain papers that solve the ness with which they are furnished with the report of last night's student's difficulties, others give him information upon points likely debate or public meeting. When we mention that all the educational to be of special value to him in his profession. Others again travel works we have enumerated, (except the "Reporter's Guide," and the ont of the technical into the general, and win his suffrages by their "Reporter's Reading Book "), and by far the larger number of those literary merit alone. The uses of these magazines are simply incal- which we have classed under the other three heads of division, have culable. If we were to single out one of them, for the purpose of been produced under Mr. Pitman's own superintendence, and the recommending it to the student, it would be the Phonetic Journal, lithography executed by his own hand, we shall have thrown an adpublished weekly, 3d. In addition to a large amount of literary ditional light upon the Herculean task which has been undertaken matter, printed partly in the common spelling and partly in phonetic and accomplished by him, under whose guidance our shorthand students spelling, cach number contains sixteen pages of lithographed short-have been piloted so pleasantly through the preliminary difficulties of hand, beautifully written by the inventor of the system. Nothing is an invaluable art. To add that full particulars concerning all the of more importance to the shorthand writer than that he should be works to which we have referred in this brief, and necessarily inadeable to read with case what he has written; nor is there any point of quate notice, may be obtained by application to Mr. Isaac Pitman, practice more frequently neglected. It is too often forgotten that in Phonetic Institute, Bath, or of his brother and London publisher, Mr. learning a language the first thing we do is to read it fluently. It is Fred. Pitman, 20, Paternoster Row, is to close our task and with it too often thought sufficient to write swiftly and "let the reading our 'Lessons in Shorthand." NATURAL HISTORY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER IV. dividing line being a means of production or a facility for trade. The ill-fated Lord Strafford, more than 200 years ago, saw how well the flatness of the country and the THE UNITED KINGDOM: IRELAND-RAW PRODUCE, MINERAL, slow flow of the rivers suited inland communication, and VEGETABLE, ANIMAL. Relation between Raw Produce and Industry-Geological Conditions of Mineral Produce-Application of Principles to Ireland-Ireland not noted for Minerals-Pre-eminently Pastoral-Vegetable Produce-Natural Advantages of Ireland-European Analogues. THE industrial occupations of the people of the United Kingdom have been proved in the preceding pages to be the result of natural laws, and not of chance. The seats of mining and of manufactures are determined by the local mineral deposits, and the importance of the one is proportionate to the richness of the other-especially so in relation to iron and coal. Given the geological character of the rocks and soil, with the physical distinctions of highland, lowland, plain, and marsh, and the climatic phenomena, we may infer much of the raw produce, organic and inorganic. The mountain borders of Ireland give occupations to labourers in mines and quarries, and copper and lead are produced in the counties of Wicklow, Cork, and Waterford. Iron is more widely dispersed, but for want of coal is unprofitable to smelt. Peat is almost the only fuel. Limestone is the principal rock of the interior; statuary marble of fine quality is met with in Galway and Donegal, and granite in many parts. Nevertheless, Ireland is not noted for its minerals. The special feature of its geology is the dreary expanse of bog, occupying 3,000,000 acres, or a tenth of the central plain of the kingdom. The great bog of Allen, once a forest, spreads through four counties. These bogs are considerably above the level of the sea, and sometimes very deep. They lie upon vast deposits of clay and drift, which overspread the mountain limestone, and, in steep impervious embankments, form the confines of stagnant reservoirs of saturated vegetable soil, unsafe in places for the smallest quadruped to walk upon. The structure of the bogs indicates the proper method of drainage, but notwithstanding a river system unusually complete, little has been reclaimed; and, since bog earth is deficient in mineral constituents, it is doubtful if drainage would ever repay, in produce, the cost of reclamation. Ireland is pastoral, and there appears no limit to its dairy and grazing capabilities. Pastures cover twothirds of the country, and four-fifths of the people depend upon field labour. As a rule, however, the farming is inferior, the tillage slovenly, and the implements rude. The production of butter and provisions for export is, nevertheless, prodigious. Salt beef, pork, bacon, lard, and many millions of eggs, are consigned to England. Cork has, virtually, the victualling of our navy.. Waterford dispatches abroad over 100,000 casks of butter yearly, and slaughters every week an average of 5,000 swine, while the quays, a mile long, swarm with live stock for embarkation. The eastern provinces are more flourishing than the western. The Curragh of Kildare competes with the English downs as a grazing-ground, and sheep have fed for ages upon its sweet herbage. In the open country corn intervenes between the breadths of potato, and meal and milk are used for food. The fields smile with the blue-flowered flax, which the cotters grow for their families and weave in the hand-loom. The people of these districts are of English or Scotch descent, and have carried their native skill and thrift into the country of their adoption. They command higher wages, and can pay higher rents for less propitious soil, than the native Erse. Ireland's resources are, to a great extent, undeveloped. With a coast-line of 2,000 miles, and inlets penetrating the land from opposite coasts, with a matchless system of rivers and lakes, the surface is a dissected map, every VOL. IV. he devised a great scheme of intersecting canals, as yet but partially carried out. Oats have in recent years become the largest tilled crop, while wheat has so increased as sometimes to leave a surplus for exportation: nevertheless, the humidity of Ireland will ever render the harvests capricious. The native sheep was covered with a coarse hair, but by intermixture with English breeds is now improved. The production of wool is valuable and abundant, but the manufacture is confined to coarse goods, and carried on with insufficient capital. For cattle-rearing and dairy produce, Ireland might be matchless. Her only European analogues are Denmark* and the Netherlands, where the prevalence of water shrouds the plains with vapours, which clear away before the summer winds, to reveal meadows covered with kine. The quays and jetties of the Hanse Towns and the Dutch ports resemble those of Cork and Waterford, swarming with stock, and filled to repletion with cheese and " provisions." Ireland has languished, however, and a fifth of her inhabitants have disappeared, Denmark and the Netherlands, with disadvantages from which Ireland has never suffered, have grown prosperous and opulent. CHAPTER V. While THE UNITED KINGDOM: GREAT BRITAIN-RAW PRODUCE, MINERAL, VEGETABLE, ANIMAL. General Description - Relation between Industrial and Geological Features-Mineral Produce of England and Scotland contrastedBritish Mineral Produce compared with European-Animal and Vegetable Produce of Great Britain-Population. ENGLAND is more a mining and manufacturing than an agricultural country, although the mineral region occupies but a third of the surface. The mining and manufacturing industries of Scotland assume larger proportions, with a still more confined space for their operation. The chief mineral products of Scotland, as in England, are coal and iron, the beds of which, together with limestone and sandstone, cover nearly a thousand square miles lying south of a line joining the estuaries of the Clyde and the Tay-the densest, wealthiest, and most busy part of the kingdom. Rich mines of lead, with which a small quantity of silver is intermixed, are worked in the Lowther Hills. The Highlands are deficient in metals. The Grampians, especially, are as destitute of ores as their summits are of vegetation. Its The most important quarries of granite are those of Kircudbright and Aberdeen. Whole towns in Scotland are granite-built, and with the improvements in the machinery for cutting and preparing this stone, its use has greatly extended in England. Many of the new buildings which adorn London are decorated with polished shafts and columns of coloured granites. great weight prevents its more general adoption for monumental and national designs. Monoliths of any size are rare. Felt in the greatest depths and found in the highest peaks, underlying the ocean and overtopping the cloud, unyielding in substance but variable in colour and in chemical constitution, this primeval rock has sometimes been called a type of truth, and an emblem of the virtues, faith, hope, and charity. Roofing-slates, also, are extensively quarried in a few parts of Scotland. "When the plains of Germany are brown and ashy with the sum mer heat, the isles of Denmark delight the eye with a fresh bright green, and as truly deserve the title of Emerald Isles as our sister kingdom. Vegetation is everywhere luxuriant, and long retains r vernal appearance, owing to the humidity of the atmosphere and of the soil."-Milner's " Baltic," p. 82. 99 Oolite is quarried in Somersetshire and Portland. The city of Bath, St. Paul's Cathedral, Somerset House, and many London churches show with what favour it is regarded for building. Lime is made from the chalk that stretches from the South Downs to Lincolnshire. Fuller's earth is dug at Reigate; and millions of bricks, for railways, sewers, and buildings, are made from the London clay. In the mining region, properly so called, we observe that Cornwall has scarcely any manufactures and very limited agriculture: its commerce and shipbuilding are comprised within the smallest bounds; but it has an apparently exhaustless supply of tin and copper, which make the country both interesting and important. The South Wales coal-field is the parent of several industries. Besides the smelting of copper from Cornwall, and also from Ireland and abroad, and its production of fuel, it is the seat of the iron manufacture, Merthyr Tydvill and Cardiff being the most important towns thus engaged, while Swansea is the centre of copper-smelting. Our other coal-fields, with one exception, are also productive of ironstone, and originate the characteristic pictures of the "Black Country" covering the Dudley coal-field, and of the congeries of iron-works, collieries, and factories which give to South Lancashire the aspect of one densely-populated town. The celebrated coal-field of Northumberland is deficient in ironstone, although the neighbourhood of Hexham produces iron of very fine quality. The wonderful supply of coal and iron casts every other mineral into the shade, or Great Britain would be called rich in lead, zinc, and the minor metals. The precious metals are rare, and seldom worth the working. Burât has computed that the production of the useful metals and coal in Great Britain is four times that of France and Russia, six times that of Austria, eight times that of Spain or Scandinavia, nine times that of Prussia, and eleven times that of Belgium. What is the result? The metal and coal of Great Britain, transformed into machines, are computed to equal in productive power the hand-labour of every human being living. It is as if the population of a second world were contributing to lessen the toil of the thirty millions in this small corner of Europe. Manchester and Liverpool were small towns till machinery made our gigantic cotton industry possible. The imports of raw cotton have been over a thousand millions of pounds yearly, and are rapidly returning to that amount. wave with corn. Barley for malting is a great object of culture in the same tracts and in the midland counties, while oats grow chiefly in the fens and in the north. Potatoes thrive in Leicestershire and Cheshire, and the turnip tribe has spread from Norfolk all over the kingdom. Pulse grows everywhere. Flax and coarse hemp of excellent quality are cultivated, though the quantity is small. The husbandry of Scotland ranks very high even within the mineral lines, but the soil capable of tillage is limited. Comparing one kingdom with another, England has half its surface in pasture, a third under tillage, and a sixth in wastes, towns, roads, and waterways; while Scotland has only one-fourth under cultivation, with three-fourths in wastes and ways. For the operations of husbandry a granitic district offers few facilities: the bare pinnacles weather slowly, and form too scanty a soil for cultivation. The Grampians are naked and sterile, as are also the broken islands of the north; while large counties, such as Sutherland, can only be laid out in sheep-walks. The most fertile parts of Scotland are the tract between Perth and Dundee, Teviotdale, Fife, the Lothians and Berwick. From climatic causes the Scotch crops arrive at less perfection than they do in England: the solar heat is inconstant, and, as in Ireland, often insufficient to ripen grain and secure harvest. Barley of the same weight as English barley contains less sugar, and does not malt well. Fruits which ripen in one division seldom mature in the other, and never become so choice; but different berries acquire in Scotland somewhat of the delicious flavour which distinguishes them in still higher parallels of latitude. Owing to the broken nature of the Welsh counties, sheep and cattle are pastured upon the hills, which, unlike the Scottish highlands, are covered with grass to their summits, and tillage and dairy work are carried on in the valleys. Welsh mutton is small, but renowned for the delicacy of its flavour. Food products are the special objects of British husbandry. Barley and hops for beer, cider apples and flax, are exceptional; but none assume the importance of the vine in France or of flax in Holland. LESSONS IN LATIN.-XLIII. We now come to those verbs which custom characterises as the I. POSSUM, POSSE, POTUI, to be able. Possum consists of potis, able, and sum, I am. The potis is contracted into the stem pot, and pot before the s in sum, becomes pos; whence comes pos-sum. INDICATIVE. able. Pot-es. Pot-est. Pos-sumus. Pot-estis. Pos-sunt. Present. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pos-sim, I may be able. Pos-sis. Pos-sit. Pos-simus. Pos-sitis. Eastward of a line drawn between the Tees and Exe, the surface exhibits fertile plains, varied by rivers, valleys, and green undulations, by a few wild and sterile heaths, and in the north by bogs. The Bedford Level and the Lincolnshire fens are the principal marshes. The soils, like the rocks upon which they lie, are not distinguished by their extent so much as by their variety. Clay, loam, sand, chalk, gravel, peat, are all represented, simply and Pos-sum, I am in many forms of combination, and impress distinctive characters upon an indefinite number of districts. The largest tracts of uniform soil are in Norfolk and the Iwealds of Kent and Sussex. Surrey, for its size, has more beds of sand than any other county, of which the heaths-Bagshot, Wimbledon, Weybridge, Woking-and the suburban commons of London are illustrations. Pot-ĕram, Few of the plains are quite barren, and none of the was able. might be able. sandy tracts are so large as the Landes of France. Pos-ses, etc. Pot-eras, etc. South of the wealds, from Beachy Head to Salisbury Plain, runs a low line of chalk downs, with a velvet pile Pot-oro, I shall be able. 1st Future. of herbage, trodden and cropped by sheep of the finest breeds, famous both for flesh and wool. Kent is the garden of England. The trailing hops of Canterbury and Farnham vie with the vineyards of France, and the scene at hop-picking resembles the animation of the vintage. Between Sussex and the Wash, wide tracts Pot-ĕris, etc. Pos-sint. Imperfect. I Pos-sem, I Infinitive. Pres. Pos-se, to be able. (None.) (None.) No Imperative. [powerful). LESSONS IN LATIN. It is thus seen from the preceding conjugation that with the aid of potis the verb is formed by sum and its parts, of which the ui is for fui, the ƒ or aspirate being dropped in combination to prevent the harshness of two consonants coming together, as pot-fui, etc. Adeo, to such a degree, greatly. Casus Celare (cado, I fall), -ùs, m., chance. (aliquem aliquid), 1, to conceal. Constituere, 3, to appoint, ordain Desistère, 3, to stand from, desist, back cease. VOCABULARY. creator. Enumerare, 1, to num ber. Meditari, 1, dep. (with Pejěrare (in its origi- EXERCISE 163.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. Pergite, pueri, atque in id studium, in quo estis, incumbite, ut et vobis honori et amicis utilitati et republicæ emolumento esse possitis. 2. Nemo adeo ferus est ut non mitescère possit. 3. Hoc quotidie meditare, ut possis æquo animo vitam relinquere. 4. Quidam idcirco Deum esse non putant, quia non apparet nec cernitur; proinde quasi nostram ipsam mentem videre possimus. sum mundum quum cernimus, possumusne dubitare quin ei præsit aliquis effector et moderator? 6. Nihil tam difficile est quin (= ut non) 5. Univerquærendo investigari posset. in pectus intimum inspicere possit, et potest. 7. Sic cogitandum est tanquam aliquis suasum esse debet, etiamsi Deum hominesque celare possimus, nihil 8. Satis nobis pertamen injuste esse faciendum. 9. Potestisne dubitare quin Deus universum mundum gubernet? non possumus. ambulare non potes? 11. Alcibiades Athenas Lacedæmoniis servire 10. Cur nobiscum non poterat pati. f EXERCISE 164.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. We cannot conceal wickedness from God. 2. You cannot doubt that the world is governed by a mind. nothing? out of nothing, nothing can arise. 3. Can the world be from of confused masses ? could not allow good men to be punished. 7. I will return home with 5. Can order arise out of chance ? 4. What can arise out the utmost speed. 6. They 9. Before I could speak I was seized. 8. They will return home with the utmost speed. beautiful. 11. Can those women be more fair? 10. The world cannot be more book if I am (shall be) able. but he will be able to conceal it. 13. He was unable to subdue his grief, 12. I will give thee a friendship exist. 15. If I could have come I would have told you all. 14. Only among good men can 16. Unless they had been able to come we should have known nothing. II.—EDO, EDERE, EDI, ESUM, to eat. This verb in its irregularities has an apparent identity with parts of the verb esse, to be. required with regard to sound. The e in sum is short; in the This arises from the changes parts of edere it is long, inasmuch as it involves a contraction. Present Indic. Edo, edis (es), edit (est); edimus, editis (estis), edunt. Imperf. Subjunc.: Ederem (essem), ederes (esses), ederet (esset); edereImperative: Ede (cs), mus (essemus), ederetis (essetis), ederent (essent). edite (este), The other parts are regular; only for editur, estur is found; and for ambedens, ambens, eating round. So the compounds, comedo, comědis, comes (to eat up), exedo, exedis, exes (to eat up or out). Comedo has comesus, as well as comestus. Adolescentulus, -i, a young man. Argentum quicksilver. vivum, Curculio, onis, the corn-worm. VOCABULARY. De symbolis esse, to Moles, -is, f., a mass. Perrumpere, 3, to break through, break into. Res familiaris, property, substance. Symbola, -, a contribution. Væ, woe! alas! EXERCISE 165.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. Esse oportet ut vivamus, non vivere ut edamus. bibite et este. bolis essent. 3. Heri aliquot adolescentuli convenerunt ut de sym2. Modice 4. Hæc herba acerba esu est. exest animum planeque conficit. incipiunt. 7. Argentum vivum exest ac perrumpit vasa. 5. Egritudo lacerat, 6. Curculiones frumentum exesse nostri cavere non potuerunt, ne vetustas monumenta exesset. Que unquam moles tam firma fuit quam non exessent undæ ? 8. Majores Ve vobis qui omnem rem familiarem luxuriâ comestis! 11. Fabulæ 9. 10. narrant Saturnum liberos ex se natos comesse solitum esse, consumit enim ætas temporum spatia. 323 EXERCISE 166.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 4. 6. They 1. Saturn did not devour his children. eat very little. 7. We are going into the country in order to enjoy a Saturn devoured his children? Thou livest to eat. 2. Do you think that 3. The waves eat away rocks. 5. Thou oughtest to eat in order to live. pic-nic. 8. This bread is bitter to eat. the corn. mind, and destroy life. 10. Old age devours all things. 11. Grief will devour the 9. Corn-worms have eaten up 13. A wise man will eat little. 12. They have eaten and drunk moderately. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-XLII, 1. These words are inscribed on the king's tomb, "He lived virtu- EXERCISE 162.-ENGLISH-LATIN. abducentur. 1. Rex, quum moreretur, dixit, "Probe vixi; improbos vinxi; hostes vici." 2. Miles victus in vincula conjectus est. 4. Labefactam rempublicam fulcit. fulciet domum. 6. Ars scribendi reperta est. 3. In servitutem 8. Vita mea apud bonos acta est. 5. Labefactam 10. Pace compositâ, domum revertar. 7. Librum aperuerunt. 9. Occultos timeo inimicos. 12. Agricolæ pratum dumetis sepserunt. 11. Felicitas difficilis est dumetis vepribusque refertus est. 15. Cæsar per exploratores comperit hostes adventare. 13. Campus 14. Exploratores adventant. oriens diem aperit. 17. Munificentiam Dei senserunt. tuum tuâ manu confecisti? 16. Sol confeci. 19. Pallium quo amictus sum meâ manu 18. Pallium inventu. CONSTRUCTION AND USAGES OF AGO. 1. He, as a shepherd, leads the she-goats through unfrequented 9. A person unacquainted with ships is afraid to steer a ship. 10. GEOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.-XVII. PERSPECTIVE OF SHADOWS. We now propose to consider the projection of shadows as they appear under the second conditions mentioned in Lesson XVI.; viz., when the sun is before, or in front of the picture; that is, when it is behind the spectator, or when the spectator is between the sun and the object. RULE.-Draw a line from the station-point, or E, to the horizontal line at the same angle with the picture plane at which the horizontal direction of the shadow is said to be inclined; this will give the VP for the sun's inclination. The length of the shadow is determined according to the sun's elevation (or height in the heavens). Therefore the angle of elevation must be constructed by drawing a line, at the given angle of elevation, from the distance point of the vanishing point of the sun's inclination to meet the perpendicular line drawn through the VP of the sun's inclination. This will be the VP for the sun's elevation, a long beam standing on its end, and opposite a point 2 feet from the nearest end of the block. The beam is 1 foot 6 inches square at the base, 8 feet high, and 1 foot space between the block and the beam. Sun's inclination 38°, elevation 30°, vanishing point of the sun to the left of the eye. Line of sight 5 feet. Distance from the PP 6 feet. Trusting our pupils will be able to represent the perspective of the solids, we shall limit our instructions, for that part of the drawing, to merely reminding them of some of the leading par ticulars in the process of construction. a is 2 feet to the left of the eye, b is 3 feet from a, for the purpose of finding the nearest angle of the block within the picture by drawing from b to DE. To find the point in the block to which the beam is opposite, rule a line from the near angle of the block to the BP atc; make c d equal to 2 feet, and rule from d back again to the base of the block, directed by DVP-this is cutting off from the near angle of the block a distance of 2 feet on the line of its base; rule from the point thus found towards the PP, directed by DVP2; and will be the point of direction to determine the lengths of the shadows, by drawing to it lines from the angles and projecting parts of the object, to cut those drawn from the object in the direction of the VP for the sun's inclination. When the position of the sun is, as in the present case, before the picture, the line forming the angle of the sun's elevation is drawn downwards. When the sun is behind the picture, the line of the angle is drawn upwards; this latter case will be treated upon in a future lesson. To render the above rule as clear as possible, we have introduced a very simple example (Fig. 79), giving only the vanishing points for the representation of the shadow. Let AB be a pole in a perpendicular position, VPSI is the vanishing point for the sun's inclination at an angle of 35°, and VPSE, the vanishing point for the sun's elevation, is at an angle of 30° with the horizon; therefore the shadow of the pole on the ground retires towards its vanishing point on the HL, and its length is determined by a line drawn from the top of the pole towards the vanishing point of the sun's elevation, producing AC, the shadow of AB. Our pupils will perceive that the principles of the perspective of shadows closely resemble those which belong to horizontal and inclined planes. PROBLEM XLIX. (Fig. 80).-A rectangular block of stone 2 feet wide, 6 feet long, and 3 feet high, is lying horizontally on its narrowest side; its face is at an angle of 40° with the PP, 3 feet within, and 2 feet to the left of the eye. Parallel to it is upon the last line a portion of 1 foot must be cut off to obtain the perspective distance between the block and the beam, this will be between e and f. The lines for the production of the shadows are dotted, drawn from the projecting angles of the solids to the vanishing point of the sun's elevation (VPSE) to cut the lines drawn from the plans or bases of the projecting angles towards the vanishing point for the sun's inclination (VPSI). The intersection of these lines will limit the extent of the shadows, as shown in Fig. 79. PROBLEM L. (Fig. 81).-A circular board in a perpendicular position, 6 feet diameter, and having a square opening in the centre 3 feet wide. The plane of the board is at an angle of 50° with the picture plane. Sun's elevation 30°, and inclination 40°. Height of the eye, 4 feet 6 inches; other conditions at pleasure. After drawing the HL, and determining the station point, vanishing points, and distance points, the plan of the circle (A) must be made with the additional working lines for the purpose of obtaining the true form of the circle when placed in a retiring and perpendicular position B (see Fig. 31, page 8; Fig. 36, p. 73, and Fig. 40, p. 141 in Vol. III.). It will then appear as a circle in a square. If the pupil will turn back to the above figures, he will at once understand why the points in the base of the plan |