THE PERCEPTIONALIST; OR, MENTAL SCIENCE. fined: a de CHAPTER I. MENTAL PHILOSOPHY AND ITS METHODS. Mental phi1. MENTAL philosophy is the science- that is, the losophy de- accurate and systematized knowledge of the intelpartment of lect. When scientific knowledge is thorough and psychology. satisfactory, we know not only what a thing is, but also what it has to do with other things, and especially how it comes to be what it is. In other words, we know not only the nature of the object, but also its relations to other objects, and especially to the conditions of its existence. Mental philosophy, therefore, considers not only thought in its various forms and developments, but also the conditions on which these depend, and all the various relations of thought. In speaking of scientific knowledge as thorough and accurate, we do not claim for it absolute perfection, but only such excellence as care and diligence are able to attain. Great alterations have been made of late years in the natural sciences, for example, in geography, geology, chemistry, and physics; nor does any one claim that no further progress is possible in the knowledge of the material creation. In like manner important changes have taken place in those sciences which relate to the life of spiritual beings; errors have been eliminated, doubtful questions settled, and new doctrines established. The metaphysical, logical, ethical, and political teachings of the present century differ greatly from those of ancient times, though not, perhaps, so much as the physical science of to-day differs from the theories of three centuries ago. In ascribing to mental philosophy a scientific character, we claim only that this philosophy contains a well-ascertained and reliable system of doctrines, and that it is progressing though, it may be, somewhat slowly-in the settlement of disputed questions. This philosophy is a department of psychology, which embraces also the philosophy of sensation, and that of the emotional and motive powers of the soul, and that of the will. The mind, or intellect, is not an existence separate from the will or from the heart; but, like each of these, it is simply the soul, or the spirit, viewed with exclusive reference to one set of its powers. The same object may be denominated in different ways, as it may be viewed in different lights. Thus the same person may be spoken of as the judge, the law-giver, and the king of a people. The word "intellect" was originally applied to that higher power of thought to which we commonly give the term "understanding," and which is an ability to perceive not merely objects and facts, but also the reasons and relations of things. Now, however, it is often used so as to cover every form of the power of thought from the highest to the lowest, and is applied to the soul as having this general power; in this sense it corresponds exactly with the word "mind." Mind, or Some define mind, or intellect, as the power of knowintellect, ing; we prefer to say that it is the power of thinkdefined. ing. This difference primarily regards terms, yet even in this respect has some importance. A wrong use of terms is always perplexing, and frequently results in error. The words "knowing" and "knowledge" should not be generically applied to the phenomena of intellect, because we are conscious of various states and acts of mind which we naturally distinguish from knowledge, and deny to be knowledge; for example, suppositions and imaginings. But there is no mental state or operation which might not be characterized as thought or thinking, or at least as involving thought or thinking. But It is true that the word "thought" is sometimes used in specific senses; for example, one might say that he thinks, but that he does not know, that a certain piece of coin is counterfeit. Thinking, when thus contrasted with knowledge, signifies an imperfect and less confident kind of conviction. at the same time it is true that when we know, we have a thought a conception of that concerning which we know; and thinking, in this sense, is always a part of knowing. Again, the word "thought," used emphatically, may signify an attentive and rational exercise of the intellect. We speak of persons as thoughtful and as thoughtless, just as we speak of a man of mind and of a man without mind. We say, 66 Sits, fixed in thought, the mighty Stagirite." Here is another special sense, with which, however, the more general meaning coexists; for even the most thoughtless person is not without some form and degree of thinking. We do not say that thought, even in the wide sense, is the only form of mental action, but that, in all cases of mental action which are not thinking, thinking is involved or presupposed as a condition; and that for this reason the intellect may properly be designated the power of thought. Mental phi ommended. 2. Some intelligent persons entertain a prejudice losophy rec- against mental science; they regard it as obscure, unsatisfactory, and without useful application. It must be allowed that various metaphysical systems have been composed which are profound only in the sense of being hard to understand, and whose doctrines, when ascertained, are simply pernicious delusions. We cannot expect people to spend much time in endeavoring to comprehend the absurdities of false philosophy. But it is evident that the rejection of all study of supersensible things could be justified only on the supposition that the phenomena of mind or spirit are beyond the reach of careful and accurate investigation. Otherwise we wilfully turn our thought away from that nobler part of being to which we ourselves belong, and in whose life of thought, enjoyment, choice, duty, and affection the ends of all existence are to be realized. Now the facts of psychical experience, so far from being removed from our inspection, are subjected to our immediate cognition, and are perfectly within the range of our attention and inquiry. They have been found difficult of observation and analysis, yet not so difficult as to prevent the formation of an excellent body of philosophy. Every earnest student can now find in mental science an ennobling and satisfying pursuit. Per Psychological studies, moreover, are as useful as they are noble. If their only utility were to satisfy a thirst for knowledge, and to occupy the mind with pure and elevating thoughts, this of itself would be a great benefit; but they have value in other respects. The mental strength to be obtained from metaphysical pursuits is one of their chief recommendations. haps no other employment contributes so effectually to develop those powers of penetration and discrimination which are the chief elements of intellectual manliness and maturity. Then, too, psychology is the necessary foundation for those arts and sciences which pertain to the proper use of the various faculties of man. It is a study indispensable to those who would improve and perfect such sciences, and of great assistance to all who would obtain a satisfactory understanding of them. Logic, which treats of the correct use of the rational faculty, is a direct outgrowth of mental philosophy, and is constantly receiving important modifications from the latter science. Ethics also, especially in its more fundamental discussions, is based on a searching analysis of certain mental workings. Similar remarks apply to æsthetics, or the philosophy of taste, and to rhetoric, which is the science of the pleasing and the persuasive in human thought and speech. A wise system of education must be regulated by a true psychology. Whether we would establish efficient schools for the young, or in a more general way subject ourselves and others to wholesome formative influences, we should seek the advice of mental philosophy. This science, too, throws great light on theology. It is the indispensable servant of theology. To understand Deity, we must understand man. In short, every science which in any way involves a consideration of the laws of spiritual existence finds a powerful assistant in the general philosophy of mind. The Baco- 3. An instructor in any abstruse study should be nian method. able to form and to express positive convictions. At the same time he should avoid even the appearance of dogmatism, and should endeavor to show that his views are reasonable. Especially he should make known the method by which his system of doctrine has been constructed, so that others may judge whether the method be a correct one; and, if so, whether in any case he has departed from it. Without method no satisfactory progress can be made in philosophical investigations. The importance of it cannot be over-estimated, and has always been acknowledged by thinking men, but more especially since the true method was illustrated and advocated by Lord Bacon. The system inaugurated by this distinguished man is founded on the evident truth, that, as philosophy aims to explain facts, so it should seek that explanation in a questioning of the facts themselves. From this principle two modes of work originate, the first and more rudimentary of which is preparatory to the other. The primary philosophy merely observes facts and classifies those which are similar, and in this way obtains general facts, which are also the expression of certain laws or modes of Nature; the more advanced philosophy carries on the investigation by analyzing the general facts already secured and co-ordinating their essential elements. By means of it we reach more profound and satisfying laws. Thus Newton, analyzing those laws of falling bodies, of planetary motions, and of projectiles - with which he was already familiar, discovered the more fundamental law of gravitation, which enters into these, and which continually operates on matter everywhere. In like manner Sir William Hamilton, following the suggestions of earlier writers, has resolved those various |