chronism that have been cited by industrious critics, the one which occurs in the case of Dido occupies a prominent place. The whole question relative to Dido is discussed by Heyne in the first Excursus to the fourth Eneid. He divides the earlier history of Carthage into three epochs: the first commences fifty years before the taking of Troy; the second, 173 years after the former; and the third, 190 years still later. At the commencement of this third epoch he makes Dido to have flourished, and to have improved, not, however, to have founded, the city, which, in fact, existed long before. Now Virgil has just so far availed himself of ancient traditions as to give probability to his narration, and to support it by the prisca fides facto. He wrote, however, at such a distance of time from the events which formed the groundwork of his poem, and the events themselves were so obscure, that he could depart from history without violating probability. Thus, it appears from chronology, that Dido lived many hundred years after the Trojan war; but the point was one of obscure antiquity, known perhaps to few readers, and not very precisely ascertained. Hence, so far was the violence offered to chronology from revolting his countrymen, that Ovid, who was so knowing in ancient histories and fables, wrote an heroic epistle as addressed by Dido to Æneas. Besides the well-known and authentic works of Virgil that have now been enumerated, several poems still exist, which are very generally ascribed to him, but which, from their inferiority, are supposed to be the productions of his early youth. Of these the longest is the Culex, which has been translated by Spenser under the title of Virgil's Gnat. Its authenticity, however, has been doubted. The Ciris, the Moretum, and the Copa, complete the list. (DUNLOP, History of Roman Literature, vol. iii. p. 68, seqq.) I. The Poem is called the Eneid from its hero Eneas, whose wars in Italy it is designed to commemorate, as well as his final settlement in that country. The closing scenes of the Trojan war, and the wanderings of Æneas before he reached the shores of Italy, are brought in by way of episode. II. It would have been more in accordance with the rules of Latin formation if the poet had called his production the Enēǎs, or, as we would say in English, the Enead. Indeed, one ancient manuscript has this very form (Enēăs, genit. Eneados, &c.). Virgil, however, would seem to have preferred for his poem an appellation that savoured of Grecian origin (Ænēïs, Aivnis). III. In many manuscripts the following lines are prefixed to the Eneid: Ille ego, qui quondam gracili modulatus avenâ Ut quamvis avido parerent arva colono: Gratum opus agricolis: at nunc horrentia Martis These are meant as an introduction to the poem, and are printed as such in most editions. They are quite unworthy, however, of the pen of Virgil, and would appear to have proceeded from some early grammarian, who wanted taste to perceive that the Arma virumque cano of the Roman poet formed a far more spirited commencement for an epic poem. Virgil here treads in the footsteps of his great master Homer. A RMA virumque cano, Trojæ qui primus ab oris 1 Arma virumque cano. By arma are here meant the wars that followed the arrival of Æneas in Italy; and by virum, the hero himself. The subject of the entire poem is thus stated in a few words. Primus venit. Antenor, as we learn from verse 242 of this same book, had reached Italy before Æneas, but the latter was the first who had come to those parts of that country where Lavinium was afterwards built, and where the foundations were thus laid of the subsequent greatness of Rome. 2 Profugus literally means one who flies forth in the wide world, as Æneas here does in obedience to the decree of destiny. Laviniaque. Pronounced in scanning as Lavinyaque, four syllables. B Litora: multum ille et terris jactatus et alto, 66 99 3 Multum ille et terris, &c. With jactatus supply est. Terris in the plural alludes to the wanderings of Æneas in many lands. 4 Vi superúm, by the might and will of the gods.' The reference is not, as some think, to Juno alone, but to all the gods whose intervention at different times forms part of the machinery of the poem. Memorem, "ever mindful." It is commonly rendered "unrelenting," which, though it conveys the sense, does not hit the literal meaning with sufficient exact ness. 5 Multa quoque, &c. "Many things, too, did he suffer in war also," i. e., after he had reached Italy. "Un Dum conderet urbem. til he founded a city," i. e., Lavinium. Dum is generally regarded here as equivalent to donec, and this meaning will answer well enough for the purposes of ordinary translation. The true force of the particle, however, appears more clearly in a literal rendering, "while he was founding," i. e., while events were taking such a turn as enabled him eventually to found. Observe, also, the peculiar force of the subjunctive mood in conderet, "until he founded, as is said, or, as early legends tell." 6 Deos. "His gods," i. e., the gods of his country, the Penates of Troy. Unde. "Whence sprang." Unde here refers to the train of events consequent on the arrival of Æneas in Italy, and may therefore be more freely rendered "from which events." The po Genus Latinum. pular belief of the Romans was, that Æneas united the aborigines whom he found in Italy, and his own followers, into one nation, under the name of Latini. 7 Albanique patres. Not, as Heyne and others think, the senators of Alba, but the line of Alban kings, from whom, as the fathers of his race, Romulus, the founder of Rome, was descended. 8 Musa. The Muse of epic poetry. So Homer, whom Virgil here imitates, invokes the Muse at the commencement of both his great poems. Quo numine læso, &c. "In what her divine power being infringed, or smarting with resentment at what." Quo is here equivalent to quo negotio, or qua ratione. By the numen læsum the poet refers to the circumstance of Juno's power having been found by that goddess to be inferior to the decrees of fate, in consequence of which the Trojans eventually escaped from her malign influence and settled in Italy; while, on the other hand, the quidve dolens pictures the same goddess to our view as an irritated female, wrought upon by all a woman's feelings, on Quidve dolens, regina deûm tot volvere casus account of the "spretæ injuria forma" (v. 27). "To 10 15 the singular could have done, but which cannot be expressed in a translation. 12 Fuit. "There was.' 99 Implying that it had been subsequently overthrown. 9 Tot volvere casus. toil through so many hardships." More freely, "to struggle with so many calamities." Servius, and those with him, who make volvere Tyrii tenuere coloni. Alludcasus an hypallage for volvi ca-ing to the settlement of Carthage sibus, manage to spoil a very by a colony from Tyre in Phobeautiful figure. The hero, while nicia. toiling against many a hardship, is compared by the poet to a traveller whose path is impeded by numerous obstacles (fragments of rocks, for example), which, by persevering efforts, he is finally enabled to remove or roll from before him. 10 Tot adire labores. "To confront so many labours," more literally, "to go against (and meet). Pietate. The chief trait in the character of Eneas is his "piety," by which is meant his constant respect for the rites and ceremonies of religion, and his unwavering obedience to all the commands of the gods. [Also his dutiful conduct towards his father.] Homer praises his piety in the Iliad (20, 298), and Virgil would seem to have borrowed the idea from him. 11 Tantæne-ira? "Is there so great resentment ?" Observe the force of the plural in ira, as imparting far more energy than 13 Contra-longe. "Facing in the distance." Longe refers to the intervening Mediterranean. 14 Dives opum. "Rich in resources,” i. e., in all the elements of national power, 66 Studiisque asperrima belli. And very fierce in the pursuits of war," i. e., fiercely warlike. 15 Quam - unam. "Which one city." Unus is frequently joined with superlatives, more rarely, as in the present instance, with comparatives. 16 Coluisse. "To have regarded." Posthabita Samo. "Even Samos being held in less esteem.' More literally, "being regarded after it." The island of Samos, in the Ægean Sea, was famous for its temple and worship of Juno. The goddess Astarte or Astaroth, sometimes styled "the Queen of Heaven," was particularly worshipped at Carthage, and in some of her attributes resembled the Roman Juno. Hic currus fuit; hoc regnum dea gentibus esse, Hence the poet identifies her with this deity. Observe the force of the caesural pause, in saving the final vowel of Samo from elision. Arms Hic illius arma, &c. and a chariot are here assigned to Juno, though not properly a warlike goddess. The idea itself of giving such appendages to Deity, seems borrowed from the habits of the heroic age. 17 Hoc regnum dea, &c. "The goddess even then strives earnestly, and cherishes the wish that this may become a seat of empire for the nations," i. e., a centre of empire, as Rome afterward was. 18 Jam tum. More freely, even at this early or remote period," i. e., even in the age of Eneas, and long before the founding of Rome. "If in any way." Si quâ. Supply ratione. 19 Sed enim, &c. The particle sed here denotes some opposition or obstacle to what precedes, namely, to the wish of Juno, while enim points to the reason or cause of that opposition. So in Greek ảλλà ɣáp. Translate: "But (there was an obstacle to this), for she had heard," &c. Duci. "Was being derived." The race here alluded to is the Roman. 20 Olim. "In after ages." 20 21 Hinc. source," i. e., from Trojan blood. "That from this Late regem. Equivalent to late regnantem. Compare the Homeric ευρυκρείων. 22 Excidio Libya. "For the destruction of Libya," i. e., of Carthage. Libya is here used, according to Greek usage, for Africa. Volvere. "Decreed." The Parcæ cause the wheel to revolve as they spin the thread of individual, or of national destiny; hence the expression volvere fatum. Such, at least, is the common explanation. For another, and probably better one, consult note on verse 262. 23 Id metuens. Dumesnil says, that metuo expresses apprehension of an evil yet distant; timeo of immediate danger. This is incorrect. Timeo is a generic term, signifying "to fear," without regard either to the nature of the object or the extent of the evil. Metuo, on the other hand, implies that a hostile disposition is always dreaded in the person exciting the fear, and that the evil apprehended is great. Veteris belli. "Of the former war." Vetus and antiquus |