especially in the rural districts, not a tenth, | the only honorable occupation, and worthy of sometimes not a twentieth part of the entire a freeman. But no one can mingle with them, inhabitants, they are often without the means of enforcing their exactions; without any regular force to levy taxes or carry into execution their mandates, without money to equip a body of troops from the Turks in towns, they can not make their power felt in the remoter parts of their provinces. 26. either in business or society, without perceiving that few races of men are more estimable in the relations of private life. Fearless, honest, and trustworthy, their word is their bond, and they are destitute of the restless spirit and envious disposition which so often in western Europe and America at once disturb happi ment, of the most frightful deeds of vii. 702, 704; cruelty, they are far, in ordinary Urquhart's times, from being of a savage dis- Spirit of the position; they are kind to their East, i. 420, wives, passionately fond of their tine, Voyages children, charitable to the poor, dans L'Oriand even extend their benevolent ent, viii. 356, 427; Lamar 357. 28. The very desolation and ruin of the coun-ness and provoke to crime. Inactivity is their try, the want of roads, harbors, or great characteristic, repose their chief enjoyAnd want bridges, the difficulty of reaching ment. Their wants, generally speaking, are of the means the distant places with an armed few; their enjoyments such as nature has of communi- force, often proves the salvation of thrown open to all. To sit on a carpet, smoke cation. the inhabitants. This is particu- a scented pipe, and gaze under shade on the larly the case in the mountain districts, which dancing of the sunbeams on the waves of the form so large a part of the territory of Turkey, Bosphorus, is their supreme enjoyment. Satisboth in Europe and Asia. Hence the smiling fied, if wealthy, with his own harem, which aspect of the villages and valleys in Servia, combines the ideas of home and pleasure, the Bulgaria, Bosnia, the Lebanon, the Taurus, and Turk has generally no ambition to invade that some parts of Macedonia, which contrast so of his neighbor; and the enormous mass of strangely with the desolation and ruin of the female profligacy which infests the great cities plains in their vicinity. The cavalry of the of western Europe is unknown. Nothing expachas pause at the entrance of the rugged cites the horror of the Osmanlis so much as the valleys, where nothing but break-neck bridle- details of the foundling hospitals, and fearful paths are to be seen, and sturdy mountaineers, multitude of natural children in Paris and armed with their excellent fowling-pieces, are Vienna; they can not conceive how society ready to pour death upon the reckless invaders. can exist under such an accumulation of evils. They are happy to exchange the doubtful Though capable, when roused either by religchances of warfare for the certainty of a regu-ious fanaticism or military excite- 1 Malte Brun, lar tribute. The inhabitants of the plains, especially if they have made any money, flock to these asylums of industry in the midst of a wasted land; and hence the constant increase of inhabitants in the mountains, contrasted with the general depopulation of the plains, which has been observed by all travelers, and led to such opposite conclusions as to the ulti-feelings to dumb animals.1 mate destiny of the Eastern Empire. In the north of Europe, where commerce is indispensable to comfort, industry protected, and an exchange of surplus rude produce Vide Mante's for foreign luxuries is essential to ney's Travels, civilization, the formation of roads Porter's Trav- is always the first step in improveels, Clark's ment; but in the East, where martine's Voy- wants are few, and the benignity of the climate furnishes every L'Orient, Cha- luxury that man requires, this Itinéraire de want is not experienced, and roads Paris à Jerusa- are rather dreaded as affording an lem, and Urqu- entrance to oppression, than dethe East. sired as giving the means of export to the productions of industry.1 Further, the character of the Turks, taken as individuals, has many estimable Excellent qualities, which have gone far to qualities in counteract the disastrous effects of the Turk- their system of government. That ish charac- they are brave and determined, and ter. at one period were most formidable to Europe, from their military prowess, need be told to none; but it is not equally well known how worthy they are, and how many excellent traits of character are revealed in their private life. They are not in general active or industrious they have left the labors of the fields to the natives of the soil-the cares of commerce to the Armenians, and the islanders of the Archipelago. Like the ancient Romans or the medieval Knights, they deem the wielding of the sword or managing a steed Travels, Vol Travels, La age dans teaubriand's hart's Spirit of 27. To this it must be added, that though in practice the administration of government by the pachas is generally The theory of to the last degree oppressive and the central govdestructive, yet the system of government is comernment is by no means equally paratively mild. tyrannical, and in some respects is wise and tolerant, to a degree which may afford an example to, or excite the envy of the Christian powers. Though the Turks, when they stormed Constantinople in 1453, established the religion of Mohammed as the creed of the empire, yet they were far from proscribing other tenets, and to the religion of Jesus in particular they extended many immunities. They admitted its divine origin, confessed that the Koran embodied many of its precepts, and claimed only for their own faith that of being the last emanation of the Divine Will. They did not at first trample upon or oppress their Christian subjects merely on account of their faith; on the contrary, the heads of the Greek Church were treated with respect, and its clergy maintained in their chapels and other places of worship. Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Catholics, and Protestants were alike tolerated, though not admitted to power; it was the long, obstinate, and at last disastrous wars with the Christians, which rendered the "Giaour" so much the object of aversion, and led to so many instances of savage oppression. Still the original tolerant principles of the government have again 2 Malte Brun, asserted their supremacy over these vii. 712. transient ebullitions of rage, and by an edict of Sultan Mahmoud all his subjects, of| whatever religion, were declared equal in the eye of the law. 1 Tournefort, An institution exists in Turkey, specially in29. tended to protect the weak against the Institution strong, and which, despite the usual of Ayams. arbitrary nature of the government, sometimes had this effect. This is the institution of Ayams, a sort of popular representation, and which provides a functionary who, like the tribunes of the people, is specially charged with the protection of a particular class of the inhabitants committed to his charge. The duty of these functionaries, who are elected by the burghers and traders, is to watch over the interests of individuals, the security of burghs, combat the tyranny of the pachas, and effect a just and equal division of the public burdens. Every Mussulman, without exception, who is in trade, belongs to some incorporation, the heads of which are elected by its members, and whose duty it is to bring the strength of the incorporation to bear upon the defense of any individual of it who is threatened with oppression. These are the ayams; they are usually chosen from among the most wealthy and respected of the trade; are assisted by a divan, composed also of the most eminent of the trade; and they often discharge their duties with great courage and fidelity. Still, so venal is justice, and so arbitrary the administration of government in the Ottoman dominions, that even the ayams, supported by the whole strength of the incorporation, are seldom able to obtain redress but by the payment of a large sum of Voyage du Le- money. But nevertheless redress vant, ii., Let- obtained in this way is better than ter xiv. Vol- no redress at all; for the sum usuney, Voyage en Syrie, ii., ally paid to ward off the threatLetter c.; ened exaction is larger than any Malte Brun, single individual, unless very opuvii. 709, 710. lent, could afford to pay. The ayams, however, are to be found chiefly 30. in the towns, and among the MussulThe village man burghers. The great, indeed the system. only security of the inhabitants of the country, is to be found in the village system, which is universal in the East, and has proved the great preservative of rural industry in every age, amidst the innumerable oppressions to which it has from the earliest times been subject. This admirable system, which has been 2 Hist. of Eu- described in a former work in rerope, c. xlvii., ference to Hindostan, and in this to Russia, is established over the 3 Ante, c. viii., whole extent of Turkey; and wher§ 29, 30. ever the industry of the peasants has survived the tyranny of the pachas, it has been mainly owing to its influence. It is, in fact, the natural resource of industry against exaction, of weakness to secure revenue, and of justice to partition burdens, and this is done with rigid impartiality. These little communities, though often extinguished through the exactions of the pachas, and the entire disappearance of the population in the plains, flourish in undisturbed security in the recesses of the mountains; and it is in their protection, and the shelter which they afford to industry, that the chief principle of vitality 4 Malte Brun, in the Ottoman dominions is to be found.1 § 19. vii. 707, 708. 3 2 1 There can not be a stronger proof of the maladministration and oppressive na- 31. ture of the government in Turkey, Small revenue than the extremely small amount derived from of the public revenue, compared Turkey. with its extent and material resources. The entire revenue of the empire is from 650,000,000 to 750,000,000 piastres (£6,000,000 to £7,000,000), not a seventh part of the public income of Great Britain, possessing in the portion taxed not a fifth part of the extent of surface, nor a tenth part of the natural riches and agricultural advantages of the Ottoman dominions. In ancient times they maintained four times their present inhabitants, and yielded five times their present revenue. Yet, trifling as it is, this revenue is felt as so oppressive by the inhabitants that it operates as a serious bar to industry. It is raised by a tithe on agricultural produce and animals, and a tax of 17 per cent. on incomesin all 27 per cent. on landed property, a grievous burden, and crushing to industry. The Turkish government cuts up its own resources from the roots, by destroying the industry from which they must arise. " When a native of Louisiana," says Montaigne," desires the fruit of a tree, he lays the ax to its root. Be-2-bicin, hold the emblem of despotism." 1 275, 276. country. Like all declining empires, and none more than its own provinces under the Byzan- 32. tine rule, Turkey exhibits the symp- Great poputoms of decline more strongly in lation of the the rural than the urban districts; towns, and and several great towns, besides the decline of the capital, exhibit considerable marks of prosperity, while the provinces around them are every day sinking deeper in the abyss of misery. The constant migration of the inhabitants from the country to the towns is the evil every where most strongly felt and complained of in Turkey, for it paralyzes all rural operations, and cuts up by the roots the ultimate resources of the state. The new-comers in towns pick up a subsistence by trade and manufactures, or fall as burdens on the charity of the mosques and opulent inhabitants. In the crowd they are overlooked by the tax-gatherers, and generally escape with the payment only of a trifling capitation-tax, a thing impossible when exposed to his rapacity in the solitude of rural life. Accordingly, while the provinces are every day more and more going to ruin, and large tracts of land are daily returning to a state of nature, the chief towns exhibit a considerable degree of prosperity, and often a surprising number of inhabit- 3 Ubicini, ants. ** 2 361, 364. 33. One evil of a very peculiar kind exists in Turkey, highly injurious to indusMultitude try. This consists in the prodigious of idle serv- multitude of servants and idle reants in the tainers who are to be found in the country. establishments of the pachas and the affluent, and who consume the fruits of the earth, and the resources of the state, without contributing any thing either to the one or the other. The number amounts to 1,500,000 -a burden nearly as heavy as a standing army to the same amount would be, and far more enervating to the state. It is the hope of getting into some of these great establishments, where they may be maintained in idleness and luxury at the expense of the rural cultivators who are toiling at the plow, which is the great inducement that attracts such multitudes from the country to the great towns. When once there, they never go back; rural labor is ever insupportable to those who have once tasted the varieties and excitement of urban life. But this vast abstraction of robust hands from country labor to urban indolence, an evil in every country, is doubly so in one like Turkey, laboring under the scourge of 1 Ubicini, a scanty and declining rural popu 290. 34. lation.1 and extended his dominion from the Adriatic to the Crimea; Selim I., in 1517, subdued Egypt, Syria, and Rhodes; and in 1529, Hungary, torn by civil dissensions, opened to Soliman II. the road to Vienna. Soon after Cyprus yielded to Selim, but here the star of the Crescent was arrested. The battle of Lepanto, in 1571, checked forever their naval progress; the siege of Malta put a limit to their conquests in the Mediterranean. Azof, in the north of the empire, acquired in 1642, was successively lost and regained; Vienna, again besieged in 1683 by 150,000 Turks, beheld their total defeat by the arms of John Sobieski. The Ottoman arms yielded in several campaigns to the scientific manoeuvres and daring valor of Prince Eugene, and Austria made great acquisitions from them by the treaties of 1699 and 1718, but she lost them all by the disgraceful peace of 1739. Long victorious over the Turks under the banners of Marshal Mornich, the Russians, under Peter the Great, were reduced to capitulate, in 1711, on the Pruth, to the Ottoman forces, and purchase a disgraceful retreat by the abandonment of all their conquests. The Morea was conquered from them by the Venetians in 1699, though soon after regained, and the conquest of Bagdad seemed to announce their decisive superiority in Asia over the Persians. Yet were these great successes, which filled all Europe with dread, and seemed to presage for them almost universal dominion, soon followed by still greater disasters. The growing strength of Russia rose up in appalling vigor beside the at length declining resources of the Osmanlis. Romanzoff crossed the Danube, and carried the ravages of war to the foot of the Balkan; the fleet of Orloff made the circuit of Europe, and consigned the Turkish fleet to the flames in the bay of Tchesme; the Morea took up arms in 1783, and for a time acknowledged the sceptre of Russia; and nothing but the intervention of France and England preserved the empire from dismemberment, when threatened with the combined armies of Russia and Austria, two hundred thousand strong, immediately before the French Revolution. The war of 1808 still more clearly revealed the increasing weakness of the Ottomans. alone proved more than a match for Turkey. Wallachia and Moldavia were by a formal ukase incorporated with the dominions of the Czar, and nothing but the invasion of Napoleon in 1812 obliged the cabinet of St. Petersburg to acknowledge for a brief season the Pruth as the frontier stream of the two empires. Russia It results necessarily from this peculiar and anomalous position of the Turkish Variable empire, that its political and military strength of strength varies extremely from time the Turkish to time, and depends rather on casual Empire. fits of excitement or sudden fits of passion, than any lasting strength or permanent resources. When a sultan of great vigor or military capacity is at the head of affairs, and the nation is excited by the prospect of glory or pillage, or when the religious feelings of the people are violently excited against the infidels, nearly the whole race of the Osmanlis run to arms, and the grand-vizier finds himself at the head of a mighty host, which has often proved for the time irresistible by the utmost strength of the Western powers. It was thus that Rhodes was conquered in 1517 from its valiant chevaliers by Selim I.; and Vienna besieged by Soliman II., in 1529; and Candia conquered by Mohammed IV.; and Vienna again besieged, and saved from destruction only by John Sobieski in 1683. On many of these occasions the grandvizier found himself at the head of 150,000 men, whose desperate onset in the field was equaled only by the skill with which they wielded their weapons. But as these efforts were founded on passing excitement, not durable strength or lasting policy, they were seldom of long duration: a single considerable reverse was gener-empire is not one state, in the Euro- Independent ally sufficient to disperse the mighty host which pean sense of the word; that is, a position of was held together only by the fervor of fanat- united dominion, ruled by one gov- the larger icism, or the lust of plunder; and the grand-ernment, obliged to obey its direct pannas, and vizier often found himself wholly deserted, a mandates, and contributing all its weakness of few days after he had been at the head of an resources to its support: it is rather the central army apparently capable of conquering the an aggregate of separate states, ow- power. world. ing only a nominal allegiance to the central power, and yielding it effective support only when the vigor and capacity of the ruling sultan, or the strong tide of passing enthusiasm, leaves them no alternative but to render it. The pachas, especially the more distant and powerful ones, are often in substance independent; they pay only a fixed tribute to the sul Hence the history of Turkey presents the 35. most extraordinary vicissitudes of Great vicis fortune, and has oscillated alternsitudes in ately from the most prosperous to the history the most adverse circumstances. of Turkey. Mohammed II. stormed Constantinople in 1453, and ere long he had subdued Greece, One great cause of these extraordinary mutations of fortune is, that the Ottoman 36. consequent tan, generally inconsiderable compared to the sum which they contrive to exact from their subjects: they are bound to send, in case of need, a certain body of troops to his support, but it is generally delayed as long as possible, and when it does arrive, like the contingents of the German princes, it seldom gives any effective aid to the forces of the empire. Many of the bloodiest and most desperate wars the Porte has ever carried on, have been with its own rebellious satraps. Czerny George and Prince Molosch, at the head of the strength of Servia, maintained a prolonged contest with the Ottoman forces, which terminated, in recent times, in its nominal submission and real independence. Ali Pacha, the "Lion of Janina," long set the whole power of the sultan at defiance, and was only subdued at length by treachery. Wallachia and Moldavia, under their elective hospodars, are only bound to pay a fixed tribute to the sultan, and are rather the subjects of the Czar than the Porte; and the Pacha of Egypt, by whose aid alone the balance was cast against the Greeks in 1827, brought the dominions of the Osmanlis to the verge of ruin a few years after, from whence they were rescued by the intervention, still more perilous, of Russia. The empire of the Turks would, from these causes of weakness, have long since fallen to pieces were it not for the jealousies of the European powers, who interpose, before it is too late, to prevent Constantinople from falling into the hands of any of their number, and the strength and incomparable situation of that capital itself, which, in modern as in ancient times, has singly supported the tottering fabric of the empire for more than one century. CONSTANTINOPLE, one of the most celebrated and finely situated capitals in the world, has exercised almost a more ence of Con- important influence on the fortunes of the species than any other city in existence in modern times. It broke in pieces the vast fabric of the Roman empire, and was the principal cause of the fall of its western division; for after the charms of the Bosphorus had rendered its shores the head of empire, the forces of the West were no longer able to make head against the increasing strength of the barbarians. Singly, by its native strength and incomparable situation, it supported the Empire of the East for a thousand years after Rome had yielded to the assault of Alaric, and preserved the precious seeds of ancient genius till the mind of Europe was prepared for their reception. It diverted the Latin Crusaders from the shores of Palestine, and occasioned the downfall of the Empire of the East by the ruthless arms of the Franks; it attracted afterward the Osmanlis from the centre of Asia, and brought about their lasting settlement in the finest provinces of Europe. It has since been the object of ceaseless ambition and contention to the principal European powers. A kingdom in itself, it is more coveted than many realms. Austria and Russia have alternately united and contended for the splendid prize; it broke up the alliance of Erfurth, and brought the arms of Napoleon to Moscow; and in these days it has dissolved all former confederacies, created new ones, and 37. Vast influ stantinople on the fortunes of mankind. brought the forces of England and France to the Bosphorus, to avert the threatened seizure of the matchless city by the armies of the Czar. uation. It is no wonder that Constantinople has ever since its foundation exercised so great 38. an influence on the fortunes of the Its incomspecies, for its local advantages are parable situnique, and its situation must ever render it the most important city in the Old World. Situated on the confines of Europe and Asia, with a noble harbor, it at the same time centres in itself the trade of the richest parts of the globe; commanding the sole outlet from the Euxine into the Mediterranean, it of necessity sees the commerce of the three quarters of the globe pass under its walls. The Danube wafts to its quays the productions of Germany, Hungary, and northern Turkey; the Volga, the agricultural riches of the Ukraine and the immense plains of southern Russia; the Kuban, of the mountain tribes of the Caucasus; caravans, traversing the Taurus and the deserts of Mesopotamia, convey to it the riches of Central Asia and the distant productions of India; the waters of the Mediterranean afford a field for the vast commerce of the nations which lie along its peopled shores; while the more distant manufactures of Britain and the United States of America find an inlet through the Straits of Gibraltar. The pendants of all the nations of the earth are to be seen side by side, in close profusion, in the Golden Horn: "the meteor flag of England" and the rising star of America, the tricolor of France and the eagles of Russia, the aged ensigns of Europe and the infant sails of Australia. Hers is the only commerce in the world which never can fail, and ever must rise superior to all the changes of fortune-for the increasing numbers and en ergy of northern only renders the greater the demand for the boundless agricultural produc tions of southern Europe, and every addition to the riches and luxury of the West only augments the traffic which must ever subsist between it and the regions of the sun. 39. The local facilities, strength of situation, and beauty of Constantinople, are commensurate to these immense advant- Description ages of its geographical position. of the city. Situated on a triangle, two sides of which are washed by the sea, it is protected by water on all sides, excepting the base, to which the whole strength of the place only requires to be directed. The harbor, called the "Golden Horn," formed by a deep inlet of the sea, eight miles in length, on the northern side of the city, is at once so deep as to admit of three-deckers lying close to the quay, so capacious as to admit all the navies of Europe into its bosom, and so narrow at its entrance as to be capable of being closed by a chain drawn across its mouth. The apex of the triangle is formed by the far-famed Seraglio, or Palace of the Sultans, in itself a city, embracing within its ample circuit the luxurious apartments in which the beauties of the East alternate between the pastimes of children and the jealousies of women, and the shady gardens, where, beneath venerable cedars and plane-trees, fountains of living water cool the sultry air with their ceaseless flow. The city itself, standing on this triangular space, is surrounded by the ancient walls of | to these terrific dimensions, they excite very Constantine, nine thousand eight hundred tois-little attention. The population of the city es, or about twelve English miles, in circuit, varies much, from time to time, with the ravand in most places in exactly the state in which ages of pestilence, or the terrors of conflagrathey were left, when the ancient masters of the tion. In one quarter-that of the Fanar-the world resigned the sceptre of the East to the principal Greek families reside, many of whom Osmanli conquerors. The breach is still to be have acquired in trade and commerce very conseen in the walls, made by the cannon of Mo-siderable fortunes. They are the "sad remains hammed, by which the Turks burst into the of the Byzantine noblesse, who, trembling under city. In many places, huge plane-trees, of equal the sabre of the Mussulmans, give themselves antiquity, overshadow even these vast walls by the titles of princes, purchase from the Porte their boughs; and in others, ivy, the temporary sovereignty of Wal1 Zallony, the growth of centuries, attests at lachia and Moldavia, seek riches in Des Fanaonce the antiquity of the struc-every possible way, crouch before riotes, Paris, ture and the negligence or super-power, and convey to this day a 1824, p. 72; stition of the modern masters of faithful image of the Lower Em- Malte Brun, the city.1 pire." 1 Malte Brun, vii. 722; Von Hammer, Constantinople und der Bosphorus, 72, and History, i. 100. the sea. vii. 723. 42. the sexes. us, is scarcely an evil affecting the mass of so- 2 27, 28. Greece. No words can express the beauty of the city The population of Constantinople, with its of Constantinople, with its charming adjunct suburbs, is nearly 900,000; 40. Description suburbs of Pera, Galata, and Scutari, and the proportion of women to men Population of the city, when seen from the waters on the is very nearly the same as in the cap- of Constanas seen from opposite shore of the Hellespont. itals of western Europe, the former tinople, and Situated on a cluster of low hills, domiciled being 388,000, and the lat- equality of which there border the Sea of Marmora, it pre- ter only 364,000. The former comsents an assemblage of charming objects, such prises 42,000 female slaves. This is a very cuas are not to be seen in a similar space in any rious fact, because it demonstrates that polygaother part of the world. It has not the mag-my, as common sense might long ago have told nificent background of the Bay of Naples, nor the castellated majesty of Genoa; but in the perfection of the scene, the harmony of all its parts, and the homogeneous nature of the emotion it awakens, it is superior to either. The scene is perfect; the panorama, as seen from the bay, is complete. To the north, the majestic entrance of the Bosphorus-the waters of which are covered with caïques, while its shores exhibit alternately the wildness of the savage forest and the riches of cultivated society-kin- The quarter from which this magnificent city dles the imagination with the idea of unseen is most assailable is the sea; and the 43. beauties; to the east, the suburb of Scutari, inexpedition of Sir John Duckworth in Maritime itself a city, with its successive ranges of ter- 1807, however unfortunate in its final forces of races and palaces, the abodes of European opu- results, from the tardiness with which Turkey and lence and splendor; to the west, the superb en- its operations were conducted, yet retrance of the Golden Horn, crowded with ves- vealed its inherent weakness, and proved that sels, and the dense piles of the city itself, rising it might be brought to subjection, despite the one above another in successive gradations, sur- castles of Europe and Asia, by the vigorous mounted by the domes of a hundred mosques, assault of a great maritime power. 3 Hist. of among which the cupola of St. Sophia and the But in this respect the Turks had Europe, c. minarets of that of Sultan Achmet appear con- long the advantage of the Russians, xlv. 64. spicuous; while to the south the view is closed from the admirable skill of the Greek sailors by the beautiful Point of the Seraglio, its massy who manned their fleet. These hardy seamen, structures guarded with jealous care, half ob- as expert now as when they rolled back the 2 Lam. iii. scured by the stately trees which tide of Persian invasion in the Straits of Sala172; Malte adorn its gardens, and dip their leafy mis, constituted the real strength of Turkey. Brun, vii. branches in the cool stream of the Engrossing nearly the whole trade of the EuxDardanelles." ine and the Archipelago, they had covered A nearer approach, however, considerably these seas with their sails, and been trained to 41. dispels the illusion, and reveals, un-hardihood and daring amidst their frequent Defects of der this splendid exterior, in a larger storms. Their principal naval establishments, its interior. proportion than usual the evils and sufferings of humanity. Built in great part of wood, in crowded streets and contracted habitations, it is, in ordinary times, in most places, dirty and unhealthy, and at times subject to the most dreadful conflagrations. The plague is its annual, frightful fires its almost triennial, visitant. On the 2d September 1831 a fire Do. united. broke out, which, before it was extinguished, had consumed eighteen thousand houses, and turned adrift upon the world nearly a hundred thousand persons. Conflagrations, however, are so frequent, that, except when they extend -UBICINI, 27. 722. * POPULATION OF CONSTANTINOPLE IN 1844. Military, etc. DOMESTICATED INHABITANTS. Total. Mussulmans 68,000 194,000 213,000 475,000 93,400 |