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HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

329 & 331 PEARL STREET,

FRANKLIN SQUARE.

1859.

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463849

ASIA MINOR AND GREECE: THEIR SOCIAL, POLIT-

ICAL, AND STATISTICAL STATE-TURKEY.

Wars of Revolution in the West, and of Race in

the East.-Effect of these different Passions in

effecting the Dispersion of Mankind.—They have

produced the greatest Wars recorded in History.

-Lasting Conquests of the East over the West.

-Wars of Races in the East of Europe.-Strife

of Races peculiarly vehement in the Turkish

Empire-Variety of Races in the Turkish Do-

minions.-Division of the Christians and Mus-

sulmans. Turkish System of Government.-Di-

vision of Races in Turkey renders Government

more easy. The military Strength of the Em-

pire entirely derived from the Turks.-The whole

civil Business of the Country is conducted by

the Greeks. Great and rapid Increase of the

Christians compared to the Turks. Picture of

the Servians by Lamartine.-General Decrease of

Population in Turkey.-Statistics of Turkey.—

In what does Turkish Oppression consist ?-The

Lives and Property of all belong to the Sultan.-

Great extent of Land in Turkey held in Mort-

main.—Injury done to Turkey by Importation.—

Universal Venality in the holders of Office.-Ru-

inous Weakness of the Executive.-Venality and

Corruption of Justice.-Contrary Principles of

good in Turkey: Weakness of Power. And

Want of the Means of Communication.-Excel-

lent Qualities in the Turkish Character.

Theory of the central Government is compar-

atively mild.-Institution of Ayams.-The Vil-

lage System.-Small Revenue derived from Tur-

key. Great Population of the Towns, and De-

cline of the Country.-Multitude of idle Servants

in the Country-Variable Strength of the Tur-

kish Empire.-Great Vicissitudes in the History

of Turkey.-Independent Position of the larger

Pachas, and consequent Weakness of the central

Power.-Vast Influence of Constantinople on the

Fortunes of Mankind.-Its incomparable Situa-

tion.-Description of the City.-Description of

the City, as seen from the Sea.-Defects of its In-

terior. Population of Constantinople, and Equal-

ity of the Sexes.-Maritime Forces of Turkey

and Greece.-The Janizaries.-Turkish Cavalry.

-The Advantages of the Turks in this respect

are now lost. In what the Strength of the Turks

now consists.-Where are the Turks now stron

gest in War?-Turkish Fortifications, and Mode

of defending them.-Causes of the obstinate De-

fense of fortified Cities by the Turks.-Russian

Mode of fighting the Turks.-Triple Barrier which

defends Constantinople.-The Danube as a fron-

tier Stream.-The Balkan.-Country between

the Balkan and Constantinople.-The Command

of the Sea, or the Support of Austria, is essential

to the Success of Russia. - Schumla: its De-

scription. Asiatic Defense of Turkey: The

Caucasus.-Its Value as a military Barrier.—

Description of the Passes through the Cauca-

sus.-Description of Asia Minor.-Military Re-

sources of Asia Minor.-Mountainous Nature of

the Country, and Want of Roads.-The Cauca-

sian Tribes.-Russian Policy of Intervention.-

Examples of the Application of this Principle.

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Elements remaining of Grecian Resurrection.-Re
cent favorable Circumstances in the Condition of
Greece. Recent Spread of Information, and Pas-
sion for Independence.-Formation of the Socie-
ty of the Hetairists.-Different Gradations in the
Hetairists.-Extraordinary Secrecy preserved re-
garding the Affairs of the Society. Their Eyes
are all fixed on Russia.-Cession of Parga in
1819. Consternation of the Pargiotes at their
Abandonment.-Heart-rending Scene at the Evac-
uation of the Town.-Debates on this Subject in
Parliament.-Effect of the Spanish Revolution
on Turkey and Greece.-State of Turkey at this
Period.Its Weakness in a military point of
View. Commencement of the Insurrection in
Wallachia. Ipsilanti's Insurrection in Molda-
via.-Ipsilanti's first Measures.-Reasons which
urged the Emperor Alexander to intervene in Tur-
key at this time.-Reasons which induced him to
remain neutral. - Ethusiasm of the Turks, and
Measures taken against Ipsilanti.-Commence.
ment of the Insurrection in Greece Proper and
the Islands.-The Insurrection spreads over all
Greece. Violent Excitement at Constantinople,
and Murder of the Patriarch. Succession of
Murders by the Turks.-Vigorous Measures of
Sultan Mahmoud.-Atrocious Acts of Cruelty in
Asia Minor.-Massacres in Cyprus.-Universal
Spread of the Insurrection in Greece.-Official
Declaration of Russia against Ipsilanti.-Treach-
ery and Death of Theodore.-Defeat of the Insur-
gents at Galatz.-Disasters of Ipsilanti.-His to-
tal Defeat at Dragaschan.-Naval Successes of
the Greeks. Bloody Action in Cydonia.-Suc-
cesses of the Turks in the Morea. Battle of Val-
tezza. Raising of the Siege of Athens, and De
feat of the Turks in Thermopyla.-Siege of Tri-
politza: its Description.-Progress of the Siege.
-Storm and Massacre of Tripolitza.-Import-

ance of the Conquest, and subsequent Measures

of the Greeks. Fresh Massacre of the Chris-

tians in Smyrna.-Operations of Chourchid Pa

cha before Janina. Fall and Recapture of Arta.

-Failure of the Greeks before Napoli di Roma.

nia and Patras.-Forcing of the Line of Cassan-

dra.-Operations in Crete.-War with Persia.-

Angry Negotiations with Russia.-Russian Ulti-

matum, and its Refusal by the Divan.-Ultima-

tum of the Turks.-Efforts of Lord Strangford,

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the English Minister, to avert a Rupture.-Alarm-

ing State of Constantinople, and Efforts of the

Embassadors.-Formation of a Constitution, and

Proclamation of Independence of Greece.-Ca-

pitulation of Ali Pacha.-Perfidious Seizure and

Death of Ali Pacha.-Sensation this produced at

Constantinople.-Turkish Plan of the Campaign.

-Success of the Fleet, and Defeat of Chourchid

Pacha by the Souliotes.-Extension of the Insur-

rection to Chios.-Frightful Massacre in the Isl-

and by the Turks.-General Massacre in the Isl-

and.-Signal Retribution which befell the Turks.

-Operations of the Greek Fleet against the Turks.

-Successful Attack on the Turkish Fleet.-De-

struction of the Admiral's Ship.--Renewed Massa-

cre in Chios.-Unsuccessful Expedition of Mav-

rocordato into Epirus.-Insurrection, and its Sup-

pression, in Macedonia.-Grand Invasion of the

Morea.-Dangerous Position of the Turks, and

able Measures of the Greeks.-Disastrous Retreat

of the Turks.-Further Successes of the Greeks.

-First Siege of Missolonghi.-Operations in Cy-

prus and Crete.-Fall of Napoli di Romania.-

Fresh naval Successes of the Greeks.-Destruc-

tion of another Turkish Ship of the Line.-Glo-

rious Results of this Campaign to the Greeks.-

Their Losses.-Dreadful Earthquakes in Asia Mi-

nor.-Negotiations with Russia during the Year.

-The Congress of Verona declines to recognize

the Greek State.-Revolution at Constantinople

in favor of the Janizaries.-Dreadful Fire at Con-

stantinople in Spring 1823.-Preparations of the

Turks for the next Campaign. -Destruction of

Part of Drama-Ali's Corps by Niketas.-Divi-

sions among the Greeks.-Plan of the Campaign

on the part of the Turks. - Dispositions of the

Greeks.-Early Successes of the Greeks.-Vic-

tory of the Greeks on Mount Helicon.-Divi-

sions among the Greeks in the Morea.-Revolt

of the Albanians, and Advance of the Pacha of

Scodra. Nocturnal Surprise of the Turks, and

Death of Mark Bozzaris.-Commencement of the

Siege of Anatolico.-Operations in Candia dur-

ing 1823.-Naval Campaign of 1823.-Increased

Dissensions in the Morea.-Increasing Interest

in Greece abroad. Arrival of Lord Byron at Mis-

solonghi.-Continued Divisions of the Greeks.-

Contraction of the Greek Loan. - Preparations

and Plan of the Campaign by the Turks.-Oper-

ations of the Turks in the Archipelago.-Attack

on Spezzia and Ipsara.-Capture and Destruc-

tion of Ipsara.-Glorious Resistance of the Psar-

riotes.Immense Spoil made by the Turks in

Ipsara. Gallant Conduct of the Greeks after

this Disaster.-Defeat of the Turks in the Straits

of Samos.-Junction of the Turkish and Egyp-

tian Fleets.-Naval Victories of the Greeks.-

Land Operations in Eastern Greece.

of the Campaign by Sea and Land.-Renewed

Dissensions in Greece.-Death of Odysseus.-

Curious Statistics of Athens and Attica.-Favor-

able Prospects of Greece in the opening of 1825.

-Preparations of the Turks.-Landing of Ibra-

him Pacha at Modon.-Defeat of the Greeks by

Ibrahim Pacha.-Capture of Sphacteria by Ibra-

him.-Capture of Navarino.-Naval Successes

of the Greeks.-Victory of Sakhtouri over the

Capitan Pacha.-Successes of Ibrahim, and gal-

lant Resistance near Arcadia.-Further Success-

es of Ibrahim, and Capture of Tripolitza. Fresh

Defeat of the Greeks. Commencement of the

second Siege of Missolonghi, and Description of

the Place. First Operations of the Siege.-Rais-

ing of the Blockade of Missolonghi by Sea.-At-

tack on the Town by a Mound, and its Defeat.-

A third Assault is repulsed.-Critical Position

of the Turks, and Preparations of the Sultan.-

Heroic Spirit of the Garrison.-Progress of the

Turks.-Noble final Resolution of the Garrison.

-Greek Plan of a general Sortie.-Commence.

ment of the Sortie.-Issue of the Sortie.-Vast

Effects of the Siege of Missolonghi, and general

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All the Wars of Europe, from 1815 to 1830, were

Wars with the Mohammedans.-Rupture with

the Mohammedan Powers on the Accession of

Nicholas. Advantages gained by Russia over

Persia.-Repeated Defeats of the Persians by the

Russians.-Statistics of Russia at this Period.--

State of the Negotiations between Russia and

Turkey. Measures contemplated against the

Janizaries.-New Statute regarding the Janiza-

ries.-Insurrection of the Janizaries.-Vigorous

Measures of Sultan Mahmoud. - Defeat of the

Janizaries.-Cruel Executions in Constantino-

ple.-Effect of this Revolution on the Negotia-

tions with Russia.-Civil Reforms of the Sultan.

- Conferences at Ackerman, and Demands of

Russia.-The Russian Demands are acceded to

without Reservation.. Its Provisions. Their

disastrous Consequences to Turkey.-Sultan

Mahmoud continues his Reforms.-Internal Re-

forms of Nicholas in Russia.-Operations in Per-

sia. Battle of Djevan-Boulak. Battle of the

Abbarane. Fall of Sardarabad and Erivan.-

Capture of Tauris.-Peace with Persia.-Prepa-

rations of Russia for a War with Turkey.-Fresh

Rupture with Persia, and Conclusion of the Peace

at Tourkmantchai.-Mutual Recriminations of

the Russians and Turks.-Forces of the Rus-

sians.Passage of the Pruth, and Commence-

ment of the Campaign. Preparations of the

Turks. Forces they had collected in Europe

and Asia.-Russian Plan of the Campaign, and

its Dangers. Which was mainly based on the

Command of the Sea.-Passage of the Danube

by the Russians. - First Operations: Fall of

Kustendji.-Siege of Brahilov: its Description.

-Commencement of the Siege.-Bloody Repulse

of the Assault.-Fall of the Place.-Further Suc-

cesses of the Russians, and Turkish System of

Defense.-Capture of Anapa by the Russians.—

Combat of Bazardjik.-Further Cavalry Actions.

- General Cavalry Action before Schumla. —

Blockade of Schumla, and Plans of the Russians.

-Journey of the Emperor to Odessa, and Meas-

ures adopted there.-Position of the Russians.-

Defensive Measures of the Turks.-Operations

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before Schumla.-Surprise of a Russian Redoubt. I
-Attack on Prince Eugene and Eski-Stamboul.
-Retreat of the Russians from the South of
Schumla.-Operations before Varna.-Attack on
Wittgenstein-Siege of Varna.-Advance of the
Turks to raise the Siege.-Bloody Defeat of the
Russians.-The Siege is not interrupted.-Fall
of Varna.-Reflections on this Surrender.-Op-
erations before Widdin. - Abandonment of the
Siege of Silistria, and Retreat of the Russians
beyond the Danube.-Disastrous Retreat of Witt-
genstein. Commencement of the Campaign in
Asia.-Description of the Theatre of War.
Siege of Kars, and its Description.-Its Fall.-
Appearance of the Plague in the Russian Army.
-Capture of Akhalzikh.-March upon Akhal-
zikh. Paskewitch's Plan of Attack, and its
Chances.Nocturnal Attack on the Turkish
Camp. Its perilous Chances.-Desperate Con-
flict on the Heights.-Total Defeat of the Turks.
-Assault of the Town.-Frightful Assault of the
Town.- Reduction of Alskhur and Ardagan.—
Operations on the Russian Flanks, and Results
of the Campaign.-Paskewitch's Plans, and For-
mation of Mohammedan Corps. - Vigorous de-
fensive Measures of the Porte in Asia during the
Winter.-Assassination of the Russian Minister
at Teheran, and Siege of Akhalzikh by the Turks.
-Siege of the Fortress by the Turks.-Extreme
Danger of the besieged.-Their Deliverance.-
Measures of Paskewitch against the Persians.-
Opening of the Campaign with the Turks.-De-
feat of Hadgi Hassan. - Paskewitch's Disposi-
tions, and Position of the Turks.-Paskewitch's
Plan of Attack.-Subsequent Movements of Pas-
kewitch. - Advance upon Kainly, and Disposi-
tions of Attack.-Battle of Kainly.-Success of
the Russians in the Centre and on the left.-De-
feat of the Seraskier.-Storming of the intrenched
Camp at Milli-Duz.-Results of these Conflicts.
-Advance of Paskewitch against Hassan-Kale,
and its Fall.-Fall of Erzeroum.-Further Move-
ments. Submission of the Pacha of Mush, and
of Baibout.-Disaster before Khart.-Retreat of
Paskewitch to Erzeroum.-Defeat of the Turks
in Guriel, and subsequent Checks of the Rus-
sians.-Advance of Paskewitch against Baibout.
-Total Defeat of the Turks, and Termination of
the Campaign.-Conclusion of an Armistice, and
Summary of the Campaign.-Preparations of the
Turks for the Campaign in Turkey in Europe.-
Preparations of the Russians.-Operations dur-
ing the Winter. Retirement of Wittgenstein,
and Appointment of Diebitch to the Command-in-
Chief Naval Forces of the Russians and Turks.
-Russian Plan of the Campaign, and Turkish,
and Repulse of the latter at Sizepolis.-Com-
mencement of the Campaign on both Sides.-
Bloody Combats at Eski-Arnautlar.-Commence-
ment of the Siege of Silistria, and its Descrip-
tion.-First Operations of the Siege, and Red-
schid Pacha's Movement against Pravadi.-Die-
bitch throws himself on the Turkish Communi-
cations. Description of the Country, and Move-
ments of the Armies.-Turkish Movements.-Bat-
tle of Kouleftscha.-Fresh Dispositions of Die-
bitch. Victory of the Russians.-Measures of
Diebitch after the Battle.-Progress of the Siege
of Silistria, and its Fall. Description of the
Passes of the Balkan.-Diebitch's Preparations
for passing the Balkan.-Passage of the Balkan.
-Subsequent Movements of the Turks and Rus-
sians.-Successful Attack on the Turks at Sliw-
no.-Advance upon Adrianople and its Capture.
-Extended Positions of the Russians. - Un-
bounded Alarm at Constantinople, London, and
Vienna. Treaty of Adrianople.-Convention re-
garding Wallachia and Moldavia.-Irruption of
the Pacha of Scodra.-Affairs of Greece in 1828.
-Progress of the Greeks in 1829.-Convention
of March 22, 1829, regarding the Limits of Greece.
-Reflections on this Convention.-Remarkable

Words of the Emperor Nicholas on this Subject.
-What of the alleged Regeneration of Turkey.
-Astute Policy of Russia in the Treaty of Adri-
anople. Difficulty of the Conquest of Turkey
evinced in this War.-Great Strength of Russia
in Force, and of Turkey in Situation.-Cause
of the Strength of Russia in defensive, and its
Weakness in offensive War. - Dangers of the
Russian Position in regard to Turkey.-The final
Triumph of Christianity in Turkey is secure.

CHAPTER XVI.

FRANCE FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS XVIII. TO THE
ACCESSION OF THE POLIGNAC ADMINISTRATION.

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Great Advantages of Charles X. on his Accession
to the Throne.-Character of Charles X.-His
Defects. The Duke d'Angoulême is declared
Dauphin.-The Secret Camarilla of Ecclesias-
tics.-Entry of the King into Paris.-Abolition
of the Censorship of the Press. Dangers of this
Step.--Increase of the Jesuits' Influence at the
Court, and their Efforts in the Country.-Strength
of the Jesuit Party in the Legislature and the
Administration.-Their Opponents in the Cham-
bers and the Press. General Prosperity in
France. Injudicious Measure regarding the
Army. Opening of the Chambers: comparative
Strength of Parties.-Flourishing State of the
Finances.-Restoration of the Estates of the Or-
leans Family.-Law of Indemnity to the Sufferers
by the Revolution.--Argument of M. de Martig.
nac in favor of the Measure.-Embarrassment of
the Government from other Claims.-Argument
against the Project by the Liberals.-Beneficial
Results of this Measure.-Distribution of the In-
demnity large Share which fell to the Duke of
Orleans and other Liberals.-Law against Sacri-
lege.-Law regarding religious Societies of Wo-
men. Measure of M. de Villèle for the Reduc-
tion of the Debt.- Coronation of the King at
Rheims.-Prosecutions against the Liberal Press.
-Death and Character of General Foy.-Death
and Character of M. de Serres.-Recognition of
the Independence of St. Domingo.-Negotiations
for the Independence of the Spanish Colonies.-
Legislative Measures regarding St. Domingo.-
Law of Entail: its Necessity.-Argument against
the Law by M. Pasquier.-Answer of the Gov.
ernment.-Result of the Debate.-Reflections on
this Subject.-Statistics of Finances of 1826 and
1827.--Measures of the Jesuits. Preceptor to
the Duke of Bordeaux.-Denunciation of the Jes-
uits by Count Montlouis.-Answer of the Jes-
uits.-Law against the Liberty of the Press.-Its
Provisions.-Universal Indignation which it ex-
cites.--Passing of the Law in a mitigated Form.
-Riot at the Funeral of the Duke de la Rouche-
foucauld.-Review of the National Guard.-Dis-
banding of the National Guard.-Its immediate
Success, and ultimate Effects.-Reflections on
this Event.-Treaty of 6th July on Greece, and
Convention regarding the Slave-Trade.--Finan-
cial Projects and Embarrassment of the Govern-
ment.-A Dissolution resolved on.-New Crea-
tion of Peers, and Dissolution of the Chambers.-
Formation of the Parties, and Preparations for a
moral Struggle on both Sides.-Elections and
Riots in Paris.-Mutual Recriminations of Min-
isters and the Jesuits.-Dissolution of the Villèle
Administration.-Reproaches addressed to him
from both Parties.-Character of M. de Martig.
nac. The new Ministry had not the Confidence
of the King. Answer of the King to the Address.
-Legislative Measures of the Session.-It pass-
es the Peers.-New Law regarding the Press.-
Law against the Jesuits. Indignation excited
among the Jesuits; but the Pope approves the
Measure.-Preparations for a Change of Minis-
try. Opening of the Chambers.-Remarkable
Speech of Prince Polignac.-State of Parties in
the Assembly.-Law for the departmental Munic-

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