49. DIVERSITIES OF ENGLISH SPEECH IN 1385 AND 1490

(1385).

(A) Under the same head may be combined two short comments upon the English language; one dated 1385 and the other 1490. The first comes from John of Trevisa, who in 1387 finished a translation of Higden's Polychronicon. He was a Cornishman removed to Gloucestershire, and he employed the southern dialect of English. In this passage he has so altered and enlarged Higden's text that it is simply a point of departure. The Polychronicon is a Latin compilation in seven books extending to the reign of Edward III., and towards its close gaining independent value as it assumes a contemporary character. Higden was a Benedictine monk of St. Werburg at Chester, and lived in the first half of the fourteenth century.

SOURCE.-Higden's Polychronicon. Trans. from Latin into middle English by John of Trevisa (fl. 1387). In Specimens of Early English. Ed. Morris and Skeat. Vol. ii., p. 240. Oxford, 1879. Literally translated into modern English for this edition by C. E. Moyse.

As it is known, how many kinds of people are in this island, there are also of so many people languages and tongues ; nevertheless Welshmen and Scots, that are not intermingled with other nations, hold well nigh their first language and speech, except that the Scots that were sometime confederate and dwelt with the Picts, draw somewhat after their speech. But the Flemings that dwell in the west side of Wales, have left their foreign speech and speak Saxon sufficiently. Also Englishmen, though they had from the beginning three kinds of speech, Southern, Northern and Middle speech (in the middle of the land), as they came from three kinds of people of Germany, nevertheless by intermixture and mingling first with Danes and afterwards with Normans, in many the native language is impaired and some use foreign stammering, chattering, snarling and gnarling, hissing with the teeth. This impairing of the birth-tongue is because of two things: one is, for that children in school, against the usage and manner of all other nations, are compelled for to leave their own language and for

1 The meaning of several words in this passage is obscure.

to construe their lessons and their things in French, and have done so since the Normans came first into England. Also gentlemen's children are taught for to speak French from the time that they are rocked in their cradle and can speak and play with a child's brooch; and countrified men wish to liken themselves to gentlemen and try with great diligence for to speak French, for to be more thought of.

This custom was much used before the first plague [A.D. 1348-1349] and is since somewhat changed. For John Cornwall, a master of grammar, changed the teaching in grammarschools and construction of French into English; and Richard Pencrych learned that manner of teaching from him and other men from Pencrych; so that now, the year of our Lord a thousand three hundred fourscore and five-of the second king Richard after the Conquest, nine-in all the grammar-schools of England children leave French and construe and learn in English, and have thereby advantage on one side and disadvantage on another. Their advantage is, that they learn their grammar in less time than children were wont to do: [the] disadvantage is that now children of the grammar-school know no more French than their left heel knows, and that is harm for them if they cross the sea and travel in foreign lands, and in many [other] cases too. Also gentlemen have now largely ceased teaching their children French. It seems a great wonder how English that is the birth-tongue of Englishmen and their own language and tongue is so diverse of sound in this island, and the language of Normandy is a stranger from another land and hath one kind of sound among all men that speak it aright in England. Nevertheless there are as many diverse kinds of French in the realm of France as there are diverse kinds of English in the realm of England.

Also of the aforesaid Saxon tongue,—that is divided in three, and has with difficulty been retained by a few countrified men, and it is a great wonder; for men of the east with men of the west, as it were under the same part of heaven, accord more in sound of speech than men of the north with men of the south; therefore it is that Mercians who are men of middle England, as it were partners of the ends, understand better the side languages northern and southern, than northern and southern understand each other.

All the language of the Northumbrians, and especially of York, is so shrill, piercing and harsh and unshapely that we southern men can scarcely understand that language. I believe that that is because that they are near foreign men and

aliens that speak in foreign wise; and also because that the kings of England dwell always far from that country; for they prefer the south country, and if they go to the north country they go with power and retinue. The reason why they are more in the south country than in the north may be, better cornland, more people, more noble cities and more profitable havens.

(1490).

(B) The second of these excerpts relating to the English tongue is by Caxton. About twenty years after the invention of printing he established a press at Westminster, and was brought face to face with practical difficulties arising from the fluidity of language. At this point we quit the Middle Ages, and the reader will perceive that with the disuse of Latin, the spread of new ideas, and the growing complexity of civilised life, our selections assume a different character. The few remaining translations are (one or two excepted) from modern languages, and the pervading tone becomes less foreign, more familiar.

Preface to Eneydos. William Caxton (1422?-1491). Taken from quotation in Encyclopædia Britannica. Ed. ix., Edinburgh, 1878. Vol. viii., p. 399.

I doubted that it should not please some gentlemen, which late blamed me, saying, "That in my translations I had over curious terms, which could not be understood of common people," and desired me to use old and homely terms in my translations. And fain would I satisfy every man; and so to do, took an old book and read therein; and certainly the English was so rude and broad that I could not well understand it. And also my lord abbot of Westminster showed to me late certain evidences written in old English for to reduce it into our English now used. And certainly it was written in such wise that it was more like to Dutch than to English; I could not reduce nor bring it to be understood. And certainly, our language now used varieth far from that which was used and spoken when I was born. For we Englishmen are born under the domination of the moon, which is never steadfast, but ever varying, waxing one season, and waneth and decreaseth another season. And that common English that is spoken in one shire varieth from another. In so much that in my days it happened that certain

merchants were in a ship in the Thames, for to have sailed over the sea into Zealand, and for lack of wind they tarried at the foreland, and went to land for to refresh them. And one of them named Sheffelde, a mercer, came into an house and asked for meat, and specially he asked after egges, and the good wife answered that she could speak no French. And the merchant was angry, for he also could speak no French, but would have had egges; and she understood him not. And then at last another said that he would have eyren; then the good wife said that she understood him well. Lo! what should a man in these days now write, egges or eyren? Certainly, it is hard to please every man, by cause of diversity and change of language. For in these days, every man that is in any reputation in his country will utter his communication and matters in such manners and terms that few men shall understand them. And some honest and great clerks have been with me, and desired me to write the most curious terms that I could find. And thus between plain, rude, and curious, I stand abashed; but in my judgment, the common terms that be daily used are lighter to be understood than the old and ancient English.

50. A VENETIAN VIEW OF ENGLISH SOCIETY (1496-1502).

If we assumed that the progress of English civilisation had been steady ever since the Norman Conquest, we should expect the reign of Henry VII. to be richer in historical literature than, let us say, the reign of Henry III. It inherited the advantage of more than 200 years' experience; it was a time of peace and prosperity coming after a generation of violence; and the newly-invented printing press gave authors a much larger audience than they could reach in the days of Matthew Paris. The astonishing fact is that since William the Conqueror no reign of anything like equal length is so poorly recorded by native chroniclers. One reason, which partially explains this circumstance, is that in the absence of wars and domestic revolutions the old school annalist found himself without topics. Nor had the new school historian who was to use the English language yet arisen. Fortunately there are several foreigners whose summaries of English events or notices of English society can be trusted, and among these the Italians

easily lead. Italy was then the teacher of Europe, and every piece of information about England from an independent Italian source is valuable. In the Venetian Relation we see the impressions of an alien who was familiar with a higher standard of domestic refinement than England could show. The work is anonymous, but was probably written by some one attached to the legation at the time when Francesco Capella was ambassador at London.

SOURCE.-Venetian Relation. Trans. C. A. Sneyd. Camden Society, 1847. P. 20.

The English are, for the most part, both men and women of all ages, handsome and well-proportioned; though not quite so much so, in my opinion, as it had been asserted to me, before your Magnificence went to that kingdom; and I have understood from persons acquainted with these countries, that the Scotch are much handsomer; and that the English are great lovers of themselves, and of everything belonging to them; they think that there are no other men than themselves, and no other world but England; and whenever they see a handsome foreigner, they say that "he looks like an Englishman," and that "it is a great pity that he should not be an Englishman"; and when they partake of any delicacy with a foreigner, they ask him, "whether such a thing is made in their country?" They take great pleasure in having a quantity of excellent victuals, and also in remaining a long time at table, being very sparing of wine when they drink it at their own expense. And this, it is said, they do in order to induce their other English guests to drink in moderation also; not considering it any inconvenience for three or four persons to drink out of the same cup. Few people keep wine in their own houses, but buy it for the most part at a tavern; and when they mean to drink a great deal they go to the tavern, and this is done not only by the men, but by ladies of distinction. The deficiency of wine, however, is amply supplied by the abundance of ale and beer, to the use of which these people are become so habituated, that, at an entertainment where there is plenty of wine, they will drink them in preference to it, and in great quantities. Like discreet people, however, they do not offer them to Italians, unless they should ask for them; and they think that no greater honour can be conferred or received, than to invite others to eat with them, or