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LECTURE IX.

STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. ENGLISH

TONGUE.

F the whole clafs of words that are called at

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the most complex, by far, is the verb. It is chiefly in this part of speech, that the fubtile and profound metaphysic of language appears; and, therefore, in examining the nature and different variations of the verb, there might be room for ample difcuffion. But as I am fenfible that fuch grammatical difcuffions, when they are purfued far, become intricate and obfcure, I fhall avoid dwelling any longer on this fubject, than feems abfolutely neceffary.

The verb is fo far of the fame nature with the adjective, that it expreffes, like it, an attribute, or property, of fome perfon or thing. But it does more than this. For, in all verbs, in every language, there are no less than three things implied at once; the attribute of fome fubftantive, an affirmation concerning that attribute, and time. Thus, when I fay," the fun fhineth ;" fhining, is the attribute afcribed to the fun; the prefent time is marked; and an affirmation is included, that this property of fhining belongs, at that time, to the fun. The

participle, "fhining," is merely an adjective, which denotes an attribute, or property, and alfo expreffes time; but carries no affirmation. The infinitive mood, "to fhine," may be called the name of the verb; it carries neither time nor affirmation, but fimply expreffes that attribute, action, or ftate of things, which is to be the subject of the other moods and tenfes. Hence the infinitive often carries the refemblance of a fubftantive noun; and, both in English and Latin, is fometimes conftructed as fuch. As, "fcire tuum nihil cft." "Dulce et decorum eft pro patria mori." And, in English, in the fame manner" to write well is difficult; to speak eloquent"ly is ftill more difficult." But as, through all the other tenfes and moods, the affirmation runs, and is effential to them; "the fun fhineth, was fhining, "fhone, will fhine, would have fhone," &c. the affirmation seems to be that which chiefly distinguishes the verb from the other parts of speech, and gives it its moft confpicuous power. Hence there can be no fentence, or complete propofition, without a verb either expreffed or implied. For, whenever we speak, we always mean to affert, that fomething is, or is not; and the word, which carries this affertion, or affirmation, is a verb. From this fort of eminence belonging to it, this part of fpeech hath received its name, verb, from the Latin, verbum, or the word, by way of diftinction.

Verbs, therefore, from their importance and neceffity in fpeech, muft have been coeval with men's first attempts towards the formation of language: though, indeed, it must have been the work of long time, to rear them up to that accurate and complex ftructure which they now poffefs. It seems very probable, as dr. Smith hath fuggefted, that the radical verb, or the first form of it, in moft languages, would be, what we now call the imperfonal verb. "It rains; it thunders; it is light; it Vol. I.

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"is agreeable ;" and the like; as this is the very fimplest form of the verb, and merely affirms the exiftence of an event, or of a state of things. By degrees, after pronouns were invented, fuch verbs became perfonal, and were branched out into all the variety of tenfes and moods.

The tenfes of the verb are contrived to imply the feveral diftinctions of time. Of thefe I must take fome notice, in order to fhow the admirable accuracy with which language is conftructed. We think commonly, of no more than the three great divifions of time, into the paft, the prefent, and the future and we might imagine, that if verbs had been fo contrived, as fimply to exprefs thefe, no more was needful. But language proceeds with much greater fubtility. It fplits time into its feveral moments. It confiders time as never standing still, but always flowing; things paft, as more or less perfectly completed; and things future, as more or lefs remote, by different gradations. Hence the great variety of tenfes in moft tongues.

The prefent may, indeed, be always confidered as one indivifible point, fufceptible of no variety. "I write, or I am writing; fcribo." But it is not fo with the paft. There is no language fo poor, but it hath two or three tenfes to express the varieties of it. Ours hath no fewer than four. 1. A past action may be confidered as left unfinished; which makes the imperfect tense, "I was writing; fcribebam." 2. As juft now finished. This makes the proper perfect tenfe, which in English, is always expreffed by the help of the auxiliary verb, "I have "written." 3. It may be confidered as finished fome time ago; the particular time left indefinite. "I wrote; fcripfi ;" which may either fignify, "I "wrote yesterday, or I wrote a twelvemonth ago." This is what grammarians call an aorift, or indefinite paft. 4. It may be confidered as finished before

fomething else, which is alfo paft. This is the plufquamperfect." I had written; fcripferam. I had "written before I received his letter."

Here we observe, with fome pleasure, that we have an advantage over the Latins, who have only three varieties upon the past time. They have no proper perfect tenfe, or one which diftinguishes an action just now finished, from an action that was finished fome time ago. In both thefe cafes, "they must fay, fcripfi.". Though there be a manifeft difference in the tenfes, which our language expreffes by this variation," I have written," meaning, I have just now finished writing; and, "I wrote," meaning at fome former time, fince which, other things have intervened. This difference the Romans have no tenfe to express; and, therefore, can only do it by a circumlocution.

The chief varieties in the future time are two; a fimple or indefinite future: "I fhall write ; fcribam:" and a future, relating to fomething elfe, which is alfo future. "I fhall have written; fcripfero." I fhall have written before he arrives*.

Befides tenfes, or the power of expreffing time, verbs admit the diftinction of voices, as they are called, the active and the paffive; according as the affirmation refpects fomething that is done, or fomething that is fuffered; "I love, or I am loved." They admit alfo the diftinction of moods, which are defigned to exprefs the affirmation, whether active or paffive, under different forms. The indicative mood, for instance, fimply declares a propofition; "I write ; I have written :" the imperative requires, commands, threatens ; "write thou; let "him write." The fubjunctive expreffes the pro

* On the tenses of verbs, mr. Harris's Hermes may be con-, fulted, by fuch as defire to fee them fcrutinized with metaphyfical accuracy; and also, the treatise on the origin and progrefs of language, vol. ii. p. 125.

pofition under the form of a condition or in fubor dination to fome other thing, to which a reference is made, "I might write, I could write, I should "write, if the cafe were fo and fo." This manner of expreffing an affirmation, under fo many different forms, together alfo with the diftinction of the three perfons, I, thou, and he, conftitutes what is called, the conjugation of verbs, which makes fo great a part of the grammar of all languages.

It now clearly appears, as I before obferved, that, of all the parts of fpeech, verbs are, by far, the moft artificial and complex. Confider only, how many things are denoted by this fingle Latin word, "amavillem, I would have loved." Firft, the perfon who speaks," I." Secondly, an attribute, or action of that perfon, " loving." Thirdly, an affirmation concerning that action. Fourthly, the past time denoted in that affirmation, " have loved :" and fifthly, a condition on which the action is fufpended, would have loved." It appears curious and remarkable, that words of this complex import, and with more or lefs of this artificial structure, are to be found, as far as we know, in all languages of the world.

Indeed, the form of conjugation, or the manner of expreffing all thefe varieties in the verb, differs greatly in different tongues. Conjugation is esteemed most perfect in thofe languages, which, by varying either the termination or the initial fyllable of the verb, exprefs the greatest number of important circumftances, without the help of auxiliary words. In the oriental tongues, the verbs are faid to have few tenfes, or expreffions of time; but then their moods are fo contrived, as to exprefs a great variety of circumftances and relations. In the Hebrew, for inftance, they fay, in one word, without the help of any auxiliary, not only "I have taught," but, "I have taught exactly, or often; I have been

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