CHAPTER XV. RUSSIA AND TURKEY, FROM THE ACCESSION OF NICHOLAS IN 1825, TO THE PEACE OE ADRIANOPLE IN 1829. 1. All the wars of Europe, 1830, were wars with Ir is a markworthy circumstance, that all the serious wars in Europe, between 1815 and 1830, occurred between the Christians and Mohammedans. The from 1815 to English attack on Algiers in 1816, the French capture of the same place the Moham- in 1830, the Greek revolution and medans. its seven bloody campaigns, the war of 1826 between the Russians and the Persians, that of 1828 between the Russians and Turks, all partook of this character. Even the distant contests of the English in India were at last of the same description; the Mussulman soldiers were not the least formidable that the English had to encounter on the ramparts of Bhurtpore, and on the plains of the Doab; and they never encountered such danger as when they approached Ghuznee, the cradle of Mohammedan power in Central Asia. It would seem that, when the social contests of Europe itself are hushed, the ancient and indelible hostility of the European to the barbarian breaks forth; and that, when all domestic grounds of dissension have been removed from civilized man, the inherent causes of discord, arising from difference of race, religion, and physical circumstances between him and more savage tribes, never fail to arm one part of the species against the other. 2. Rupture with the Mohamme dan powers on the accession of Nicholas. Placed on the confines of Europe and Asia, the hereditary enemy, in every age, of the Mohammedan faith, it was impossible that Russia could long escape this general antagonist movement of Islamism and Christianity, which followed the closing the wars of the French Revolution. The pacific habits of the Emperor Alexander, indeed, and the strong direction of his mind, in his later years, to mystical objects, and the establishment of the reign of peace and benevolence among mankind, long prevented the collision, and averted the conflict of the Cross and the Crescent, under circumstances when it otherwise would have become unavoidable. But with the accession of a new emperor this state of strained and unnatural pacification terminated. His character and feelings were essentially national; the frightful civil war which had preceded his accession to the throne rendered him doubly anxious to direct the popular passion to external objects; and the warm sympathy of the entire nation, and in an especial manner the army, with the religious struggle of the Greeks, rendered it not doubtful in what manner this direction might most effectually be given. No one, therefore, entered more cordially than the new Czar into the advances of the British government toward effecting a settlement of the Eastern question, by securing the virtual independence of Greece; and the protocol of 4th April, 1826, signed by the Duke of Wellington and Count Nesselrode, which, as Persia. The last treaty between Russia and Persia, concluded on 24th October, 1813, 3. under the mediation of Great Brit- Advantages ain, had recognized the principle of gained by uti possedetis; and so largely had Russia over Russia been a gainer by previous hostilities that she acquired a very great accession both of territory and influence on that occasion. She had crossed the ridge of the Caucasus, established herself in a solid way between the Caspian and the Black Sea, and spread her dominion far to the south in the vast province of Grandscha, better known under the name of Georgia. The influence of Russia, however, by these acquisitions, was ere long felt by the Persian government to be too great for a lasting pacification; various disputed questions of territory still remained unadjusted; they had, under the terror of their new and formidable neighbor, drawn more closely their connection with the British government; and a considerable number of English officers had communicated to the tumultuary array of Teheran, in a certain degree, the consistency of European organization and discipline. Aware of these hostile preparations, the Emperor Nicholas, soon after his brother's death, dispatched Prince Menschikoff upon a friendly mission, ostensibly to notify his accession to the throne, really to endeavor to effect an arrangement of the disputed points of territory. But this mission proved unavailing; the Prince Abbas Mirza was intoxicated with the thought of commanding an army of fifty thousand men, armed and disciplined in the European method; and so strong did the war party become that hostili ties were commenced, and a considerable part of the territories occupied by the Russians to the south of the Caucasus wrested from them, before any declaration of 164, 166; war had been made between the two Ann. Hist. ix. 362, 363. countries. 2 Fonton, the Russians. The intelligence of the commencement of these hostilities reached the Emper- 4. or Nicholas during the festivities Repeated deof his coronation at Moscow, in Au- feats of the gust, 1826; but it related to too Persians by distant a province to occasion any interruption to that joyous event. Orders were sent to General Yermoloff, who commanded the troops beyond the Caucasus, to concentrate his men, and attack the enemy; and these orders were executed by that able general with decisive effect. On the 2 (14) September Sept. 14. he attacked Abbas Mirza, who was at the head of eight thousand soldiers, and so entirely defeated him that nearly his whole army dispersed. The victorious general, after this success, advanced with his little army, consist 1 Fonton, 174, 179; 5. Statistics Ann. Hist. sion of the whole provinces which ix. 366,358. they had occupied before the war.1 Some idea of the strength of the Russian empire at this period may be formed from the result of a general survey of Russia at and enumeration of the inhabitants, this period. which took place in the course of this year. From this it appeared that the entire superficies of the empire in Europe, Asia, and America, consisted of 375,154 square German miles (sixteen to an English); the population to 59,534,000; the excess of births over deaths to 700,000; and the army to 1,039,000 men, of whom, however, not more than 600,000 could be relied on as effective; and the revenue amounted to 388,000,000 franes, or £11,500,000.* Various important regulations were at the same time made for the establishment of military colonies, especially in the newly-acquired territories beyond the Caucasus, which promised at length to give consistency to the Russian 3 An. Hist. dominion in those vast recent acquisitions. Doc. Hist. 7. Janizaries. ing of six thousand infantry, three thousand ter, and required their unconditional acceptance eavalry, and twelve guns, against the main within six weeks, failing which, hostilities were Persian army, composed of twenty thousand to commence. These conditions were-1. The regular infantry, twelve thousand horse, eight immediate re-establishment of the two princithousand irregulars, and twenty-four guns, who palities and Servia in the condition in which were posted at the distance of four they were prior to the commencement of the Sept. 21. miles from Elizabethpol, on the banks troubles of 1821; 2. The instant redress of all of the little river Djcham. Though the forces their grievances, conformable to the treaty of were so unequal, the contest was of very short Bucharest in 1812; 3. The evacuation of these duration; and it soon appeared, as had so often provinces by the Ottoman troops, and the libbeen proved in India, how little the Asiatics eration of the Servian deputies, whom they still have gained by the attempt to engraft European held in detention; and, 4. An entire satisfaction steadiness and discipline on their fiery squad- to Russia for the insult offered to her by rons. They were totally defeated, with the loss the silence observed in regard to former May 14. of twelve hundred prisoners, and double that notes. Contrary to all expectation, the Divan, number killed and wounded; while the loss of at the expiration of the prescribed period, gave the Russians was under three hundred men. In in their entire and unqualified 1 Ann. Hist. ix. consequence of this check, the Persians adherence to the demands of the 374, 376; MiniNov. 6. retreated across the Araxes; and the cabinet of St. Petersburg; the Ser- acki's Note, April 5, 1826, Russian army on the right having gained simi- vian deputies were immediately and Answer,' lar advantages, the Russians again set at liberty, and orders dis- May 13; Ann. recovered and received the submis-patched for the instant evacuation Hist. 94, 96; of the principalities and Servia.1 This sudden acquiescence in the demands of Russia, and departure from the old procrastinating policy of the Turk- Measures conish government, excited at the time templated general surprise in Europe; but it against the soon appeared that it was the result of a deep-laid design, and formed part of a change of policy long contemplated in Turkey, and which its government now considered itself strong enough to carry into effect. The janizaries had for ages been the terror of the government at Constantinople, and more than once they had prescribed their own terms to the Sultan, and even imbrued their hands in his blood. Various projects had at different times been formed for the breaking of their pride and the curtailing of their influence; but they all had hitherto proved abortive, from the want of any adequate armed force at hand to restrain the hostility and coerce the excesses of these unruly defenders. The present Sultan, whose predecessor, Selim, had been dethroned and murdered in his attempt to shake off the authority of these imperious masters, had been obliged at the commencement of his reign to dissemble, and he had not only been forced to abolish the Nizam Djedib, or new troops, but to swear to preserve all the privileges of the janizaries, and even to enrol himself in one of their regiments or ortas, for his service in which he regularly drew pay. But his determination was not the less irrevocably taken; he was only dissembling, to gain time for their destruction. During the interval he was indefatigable in his efforts to gain the confidence of the Oulemas, or learned and legal bodies; and the long wars with Ali Pacha and the Greeks had both afforded evidence of the necessity of putting the military force on a new footing, and given time for the formation of a very considerable body of men, who might be relied on in the convulsion which was approaching. The preparations were now so far advanced that, though the 44,118,600 janizaries saw their danger, they did not feel themselves in sufficient strength openly to take steps against it. Fourteen thousand topjees or artillerymen had been distributed in the barracks in and around Constantinople; and as they were the avowed rivals of the janizaries, 1x. 369. 3. State of the negotiations be tween Russia and Turkey. May 14. The interminable negotiations between the Russian and Turkish governments regarding the subjects of complaint which the former had against the latter for violating the clause in favor of its Christian subjects, contained in the treaties of Kainardji and Bucharest, appeared this year to have reached an extraordinary and unlooked-for issue. The Ottoman Government, impatient to bring the Greek war to a termination, and intent on the prosecution of the siege of Missolonghi, resolved to dissemble, and avert the threatened invasion of a hundred thousand Russians from Bessarabia by a temporary submission. M. Miniacki, the Russian chargé d'affaires, had on 5th April presented a note, in which he recapitulated the demands of his imperial mas Russia in Europe. Russia in Asia.. Square German 276,000 24,000 375.154 Population. 3,702.300 11,663,100 50,000 59.534.000 -Rapport semi-official, Dec. 30, 1826. Annuaire Histo rque, ix. 369. VOL. II-F 1 Ann. Hist. ix. 377, 379; Gordon, ii. 310, 311. 8. among the wine-vaults in the neigh- 311, 312; borhood, and gave themselves up to Ann. Hist. the most revolting excesses.1 ix. 381. Mahmoud. The Sultan and his ministers turned to much better account the breathing-time 10. afforded by the intoxication of Vigorous meas their antagonists. The Grand ures of Sultan Seignior hastened to Constantinople from his beautiful palace of Benhicktashı, on the shores of the Bosphorus, and put himself at the head of the topjees or artillerymen, and faithful troops of every description, which were and had been enrolled to coerce them, the ut- that they burst in a tumultuous manner from most pains had been taken to secure their fidel- their barracks, assailed the palace of the Grand ity by every possible means. The pacha who Vizier, the Capitan Pacha, their own Aga, and commanded them, as well as the Grand Vizier, the Pacha of Egypt's diplomatic agent, which Capitan Pacha, and their own aga or general, they plundered in the most shameful manner. were all devoted to Sultan Mah- These exalted functionaries only saved themmoud, who had also secured the selves by a precipitate flight; and if the insursupport of the muftis, and the pow-gents had been conducted with more ability, erful body of the Oulema.1 and marched in the first moment of alarm on In the end of May, after the differences with the Sultan's palace and the batteries, they Russia had been adjusted, govern- would in all probability have proved successNew statute ment took the first step in the pro- ful, and might without difficulty have imposed regarding the posed reform of the janizaries, by their own terms on the government. But being janizaries. the promulgation of a new plan of destitute of leaders, of prudence, or foresight, May 28. organization, which, although cau- they neglected these obvious and necessary tiously conceived, to avoid exciting their jeal- measures; and instead of improving their vie ousy, was yet calculated, when carried into tory, when only half gained they thought of full effect, to give a fatal blow to their influ- enjoying its fruits. Accordingly, after the pilence. Their statutes and privileges were pre-lage of the palaces they dispersed 1 Gordon, ii. served entire, and all those who drew pay or emoluments allowed to continue them during their lives; but the existing holders of these immunities were not to be permitted to sell or alienate them, and at their demise they were entirely to cease. From the ortas, or regiments, a hundred and ninety-six in number, fifty were to be selected to furnish a hundred and fifty men each, who were to be incorporated with the new troops, and clothed and disciplined after the European fashion. This hatti-sheriff was sanctioned by the signature of the Sultan, and of all the dignitaries of the state, and in-directed from all quarters upon the capital. A stantly proclaimed in all the mosques and places large park of artillery was brought from the of public resort in the capital and chief cities arsenal of Topkhana, the gunners of which were of the empire. The pay of the new troops was entirely at his devotion; and the Sultan, whose raised to thirty paras a day for private men, gallant bearing animated the courage of all his and to the officers in proportion. In addition adherents, soon found himself at the head of to this, they were to receive dress and arms the chief civil functionaries and principal milicomplete from the government—the latter con-tary authorities of the empire. By their advice sisting of a musket, sabre, and bayonet to each-indeed, by their express orders-the famous man; the former of a vest of red cloth, a pair of pantaloons of blue, and a cap of green cloth, edged with black sheepskin. Notwithstanding the magnitude of these changes, they had been so prepared, with the consent of the muftis, oulemas, and several of the chiefs of the janizaries themselves, that no resistance was at first experienced; the decree was read in the mosques without opposition; Egyptian officers began to drill the selected men; the clothing was served out; and as no Hist. ix. 379, new impost was imposed, the people remained quiet, and seemed disposed to acquiesce without opposition in the new order of things.2 This state of things continued for the first These decisive measures had an instantaneous fortnight, and it was hoped the dan- effect. The streets were immediateInsurrection ger had blown over; but it soon ly filled with a prodigious crowd of Defeat of the of the jani- appeared that these hopes were fal- Mussulmans, of all ages and descrip- janizaries. lacious, and that a desperate conflict tions, fully armed, and inspired with the utmost awaited the government in their at-zeal, who hastened to the various rallying-points tempt to introduce the new regulations. The assigned them, to swell the array of the folfurnishing of the hundred and fifty men from lowers of the Prophet. The regular force asthe selected ortas went on without difficulty in sembled amounted to ten thousand men; and the capital and neighboring towns; but when the preparations being deemed complete, the the recruits began to be drilled and marched rebels were three times summoned to lay down in the European fashion, the discontents at once their arms, and return to their allegiance to broke out. On the evening of the 14th of June Mohammed and his vicegerent the Sultan. They the ill-humor of the troops assumed the form positively refused, until they had received the of open mutiny: the new regulations were stig-heads of the Grand Vizier, of their own Aga, matized as a violation of the law of the Prophet, of Hussein Pacha, and of Redschid-Effendi. and the men were worked up to such a pitch These demands being of course refused, a de 2 Gordon, ii. 311; Ann. 380; Ann. Reg. 1826, 172, 174. 9. zaries. June 14. Sandjak Sheriff, or sacred standard, said to be composed of part of the dress actually worn by the Prophet, was brought forth from the sacred treasury, where it had so long lain, shrouded from the eyes of the faithful, and conveyed to the mosque of Sultan Achmet, with the whole solemnities practiced on such occasions, which is of the rarest occurrence, and only resorted to on the most extreme danger. At the same time the public criers in every quarter published a proclamation denouncing the janizaries as enemies to the Prophet and his 2 Ann. Hist. holy religion, and calling on every ix. 382, 383; true believer to rally without delay Gordon, ii. around the standard of Mohammed 2 311, 312. 11. cree was hastily passed declaring the abolition of the janizaries, and ordering Hussein Pacha to march against the rebels. They, on their side, prepared for the most vigorous resistance; the Atmeidan was filled with ferocious bands, whose cheering was incessant; and the overturning of all their camp-kettles, the well-known signal of determined revolt, told but too plainly that they were resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible. The combat, when the top jees approached, was brief but terrible. The janizaries commenced an immediate discharge of small arms, which was kept up with great rapidity, and resolutely withstood several rounds of grape-shot at point-blank range from the artillery. At length, however, a large number having been mowed down, the remainder retired, but still in good order, and firing steadily on their pursuers, to their barracks, where they had prepared the means of the most determined resistance. But an awful catastrophe, almost unparalleled in civil warfare, there awaited them. Without attempting to force the gates, the Turkish commanders contented themselves with incessantly throwing shells into the building, which was speedily set on fire, and firing grape on the gates by which alone egress could be obtained. In these frightful circumstances the rebels offered to submit, but it was too late. Their petition was sternly refused, and the shells continued to fall and the grape to be discharged till the barracks were to1st: tally consumed; and the whole insurgents, four thousand in number, had perished in the flames, or been Ann. Reg. cut down in endeavoring to force their way out of them.1 ix. 381, 383; Gordon, ii. 311, 312; 1826, 188. 12. The victory of the Sultan was complete, but the strength of the party of the janCruel execu- izaries, both in the capital and the tions in Con- provinces, was too well known, and stantinople. their innumerable deeds of violence too fresh in recollection, not to make the government determined to push its advantages to the utmost, and utterly exterminate the unruly body which had now become as formidable to the throne as they had formerly been to its enemies. A summary court, composed of the principal officers of state, was formed in the Atmeidan, before whom all the janizaries who could be hunted out were brought, and on being identified as belonging to the obnoxious body, instantly sentenced to be executed. Above a thousand were put to death daily for several weeks. When the Sultan went to return thanks at the mosque of Sultan Achmet, it was observed that he was attended only by the topjees, and that the janizaries were entirely discarded. It soon appeared not only that all those engaged in the revolt were to be sacrificed, but that the insurrection was to be made a pretext for the destruction of the entire body throughout the whole empire. The sandjaksheriff was carried with great pomp to the Seraglio, where it was deposited in one of the inner courts, in token of the public danger, and the Sultan and all his attendants lived in the outer courts, encamped and in tents, as in presence of the enemy. During three months they remained in that situation, constantly engaged in examining spies and informers, and taking depositions and issuing orders June 18. for the execution of the janizaries in every part of the empire. It was calculated that, before the executions ceased by the exhaustion of their victims, above forty thousand had perished, besides an equal number driven into exile. In addition to this, the most severe measures were adopted against the whole body. Their name was proscribed, their barracks demolished, their camp-kettles, so often the signal of revolt, broken to pieces, their standards destroyed, and their whole duties transferred to a new corps of regular troops, to whom the defense of the city and empire was intrusted. The eighty gates of the capital, which it had been their privilege to guard, were intrusted to the topjees and bostandjis. The Sultan with his whole court assumed the Egyptian military dress; the old costumes were forbidden; the command of the entire new force given to Hussein Pacha, who established his head-quarters at the old Seraglio, which he fortified in the strongest manner; the beauties of the harem who formerly inhabited it were transferred to the new Seraglio; and on the 3d September, as the pacification was deemed complete, the 1 Ann. Hist. ix. sandjak-sheriff was with great 385, 390; Ann. pomp carried back to its place of Reg. 1826, 192, sacred deposit, in the mosque of 196; Gordon, ii. Sultan Achmet.1 313, 314. with Russia. a This great and sanguinary revolution, which produced such lasting effects upon 13. the Ottoman empire, and was inti- Effect of this mately interwoven with its whole revolution on future destinies, produced an im- the negotiations mediate effect, very different from what had been foreseen, on the negotiation between the Porte and Russia. Sultan Mahmoud had very magnificent ideas regarding the new military force which he was to raise; and he already contemplated the formation of a regular standing army of two hundred and fifty thousand men. But he soon found that it is easier to destroy one military force than raise up another, and that the destruction of so numerous, ancient, and venerated a body as the janizaries, could not be effected without endangering the very existence of the empire. He received repeated warnings how deeply the public mind had been stirred on the occasion; dreadful fire broke out, in August, in Aug. 31. Constantinople, the work of incendiaries, which in a few hours consumed six thousand houses. On several occasions, when he appeared in public, he was received with unequivocal marks of displeasure; and instead of two hundred and fifty thousand recruits, not fifteen thousand were arrayed round the standard of the Prophet. The losses occasioned by the conflagration were immense; they were estimated at 140,000,000 francs (£5,800,000). So great did the public discontent become, that a proclamation was at length issued, denouncing the instant penalty, the men by being beheaded, the women by being sewn up in a sack and thrown into the sea, against whoever spread reports or used expressions tending to disturb the public peace; and these terrible denunciations were the very next day 2 Ann. Hist. carried into execution in every 392, 393; Ann. quarter of the city with unrelent- Reg. 1826, 164, ing severity. 2 167. Nowise deterred by these alarming proofs of 16. reservation. the public discontent, the Sultan pursued his | the receipt of these demands, which were ren14. plans of reform and regeneration dered more peremptory from a requisition that Civil reforms with the utmost vigor. Inexorable a categorical answer should be returned by the of the Sultan. in the destruction of all such as 25th September, the Turkish commissioners were opposed his determination-terrible in the pun- so indignant that, in the first burst of indignaishments he inflicted on all such as were sus- tion, they threatened instantly to leave Ackerpected even of exciting the public mind against man. But the Russians, who desired nothing him, he rewarded generously such as adhered better than to commence hostilities when the to his fortunes, and distributed frequent lar- janizaries were destroyed, and no other miligesses among the troops, to reconcile them to tary force had been organized to supply their the new exercise and uniform. He was equally place, having at once offered them an escort to vigorous in the prosecution of civil reforms, conduct them beyond the frontier, they deemed which he was well aware were, even more than it best to temporize, under pretense of sending military, essential to the restoration of the em- to Constantinople to obtain fresh instructions. pire; and two important decrees, introducing a They agreed, accordingly, to prolong the pevery different system of administration, date from riod for giving an answer to the 7th Cetothis period. He first abolished the confisca-ber, receiving intimation, however, that if they tion of the movable estate, which had hitherto were not then acceded to without 1 Ann. Hist. invariably followed every execution by orders of reservation the Russian troops would ix. 395, 397. Porte, and forbade the officers of justice to in-cross the Pruth.1 terfere with the estate in the event of the heirs Such was the situation of the Turkish empire being minors; the second enjoined on all the that, hard and even insulting as cadis and mollahs the most strict and rigorous these propositions were, the Divan The Russian administration of justice, and recommended the had no alternative but submission. demands immediate prosecution of false witnesses, and The Greek insurrection, like a de- are acceded all disturbers of the right course of the law-vouring fire, was consuming the vi- to without all steps, and not unimportant ones, in the ame- tals of the state, and entirely ablioration of the internal economy of the state, sorbed the resources of Egypt, the only part of but the success of which too soon demonstrated it which could be relied on for military aid. that more depends on national feelings and hab- The janizaries, who had for centuries formed its than on any regulations that can be made for the chief strength of the empire, were in part the direction of the people. And at the same destroyed, and the survivors were animated with time the Divan gave the strongest proof that they such an unextinguishable animosity against the had no inclination to abate by far the greatest government, that if armed they might be resocial evil the distinction of races and religionsgarded as its most formidable enemies. Of the -which afflicted the empire; for, by a new levies, from which so much had been exSept. 30. decree published in the end of Septem-pected, not fifteen thousand were as yet groupber, the whole population of the country other ed round the Sultan's standard, and even they than the Mussulmans was enjoined to wear the were as yet imperfectly disciplined. The En1 Decree, Sept. ancient dresses, both in form and glish and French embassadors had intimated the 30, 1826; Ann. color, and not to venture on those intention of their respective courts to take an Hist. ix. 391, reserved for the followers of the active part in the intervention in favor of Prophet.1 Greece, and throw into the scale in the conThe first effect of the destruction of the jani- flict with that power the weight of their arms zaries appeared in the negotiations and the terror of their name. Pressed by so between Russia and the Porte, which, many dangers, the Ottoman government, though as a humiliation to Ottoman pride, with no intention, as it ultimately appeared, of the Emperor Nicholas had directed adhering to their engagements, resolved on subto be transferred to Ackerman, a mission; and, on the last day allowed, town of Bessarabia, in the Russian their plenipotentiaries signed the celedominions. The conference began on the 1st of brated Convention of Ackerman, which has ever August. Great difficulty was experienced in the since occupied so prominent a place in the dioutset, as might have been expected, when the plomacy of the East. Some delay occurred in pride of the Osmanlis was compelled to yield to the ratification of the Sultan, but at 2 Ann. Hist. the stern necessity of the times, and the Russians length it too was adhibited, and the ix. 396, 397; made the most of the extraordinary advantages act became part of the international Ann. Reg. which circumstances had thrown in their way to law of the two empires.2 exact the most rigorous terms from their ancient By the treaty, which was reduced into the antagonists. The demands of Russia related form of two conventions, it was stip- 17. chiefly to three points: 1st, The immediate res-ulated-1. That the whole provisions Its provistitution of the whole six fortresses in Asia, which of the treaty of Bucharest, of 17th ions. the Turks were bound to cede to the Russians June, 1812, were ratified and confirmed in their by the last pacification, but of which they had fullest extent. 2. Certain stipulations favorable only given up two; 2d, The relations and legal to Russia, in regard to two large islands in the privileges of the inhabitants of Wallachia and mouth of the Danube, contained in a convenMoldavia, of which the emperor had been de- tion between the two powers on 22d August, clared the guardian by the treaties of Kainardji 1817, were ratified and renewed. 3. The Suband Bucharest; 3d, The political emancipation lime Porte solemnly engaged to observe all the of the Servians, whose present chief, Prince Mo-treaties, privileges, and acts, on every occasion, losch, had obtained his appointment contrary to the wishes of Russia, to the partisans of which he had showed himself peculiarly hostile. At 393. 15. Conferences at Ackerman, and demands of Russia. Oct. 8. 1826, 174. in favor of the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, contained in the treaty of Bucharest, ns also the hatti-sheriff of 1802, which enumerated |