ASIA MINOR AND GREECE: THEIR SOCIAL, POLIT ICAL, AND STATISTICAL STATE-TURKEY. Wars of Revolution in the West, and of Race in the East.-Effect of these different Passions in effecting the Dispersion of Mankind. They have produced the greatest Wars recorded in History. -Lasting Conquests of the East over the West. -Wars of Races in the East of Europe.-Strife of Races peculiarly vehement in the Turkish Empire. Variety of Races in the Turkish Do- minions.-Division of the Christians and Mus- sulmans.-Turkish System of Government.-Di- vision of Races in Turkey renders Government more easy. The military Strength of the Em- pire entirely derived from the Turks.-The whole civil Business of the Country is conducted by the Greeks. Great and rapid Increase of the Christians compared to the Turks.-Picture of the Servians by Lamartine.-General Decrease of Population in Turkey.-Statistics of Turkey.- In what does Turkish Oppression consist?―The Lives and Property of all belong to the Sultan.- Great extent of Land in Turkey held in Mort- main.-Injury done to Turkey by Importation.— Universal Venality in the holders of Office.-Ru- inous Weakness of the Executive.-Venality and Corruption of Justice.-Contrary Principles of good in Turkey: Weakness of Power.- And Want of the Means of Communication.-Excel- lent Qualities in the Turkish Character. -The Theory of the central Government is compar- atively mild.-Institution of Ayams.-The Vil- lage System.-Small Revenue derived from Tur- key.-Great Population of the Towns, and De- cline of the Country.-Multitude of idle Servants in the Country-Variable Strength of the Tur- kish Empire.-Great Vicissitudes in the History of Turkey-Independent Position of the larger Pachas, and consequent Weakness of the central Power.-Vast Influence of Constantinople on the Fortunes of Mankind.-Its incomparable Situa- tion.-Description of the City.-Description of the City, as seen from the Sea.-Defects of its In- terior-Population of Constantinople, and Equal- ity of the Sexes.-Maritime Forces of Turkey and Greece.-The Janizaries.-Turkish Cavalry. -The Advantages of the Turks in this respect are now lost.-In what the Strength of the Turks now consists.-Where are the Turks now stron gest in War?-Turkish Fortifications, and Mode of defending them.-Causes of the obstinate De- fense of fortified Cities by the Turks.-Russian Mode of fighting the Turks.-Triple Barrier which defends Constantinople.-The Danube as a fron- her Stream The Balkan.-Country_between the Balkan and Constantinople.-The Command of the Sea, or the Support of Austria, is essential to the Success of Russia. - Schumla: its De- scription. Asiatic Defense of Turkey: The Caucasus. Its Value as a military Barrier.- Description of the Passes through the Cauca- sus.-Description of Asia Minor.-Military Re- sources of Asia Minor.-Mountainous Nature of the Country, and Want of Roads -The Cauca- sian Tribes.-Russian Policy of Intervention.- Examples of the Application of this Principle.
-Intervention of Peter the Great in the Affairs of neighboring States. Establishment of the Russians in the Caucasus and on the Caspian. -Acceptance of the Crown of Georgia by the Emperor Alexander. Wars with the Cauca- sians, and fresh Rupture with Turkey and Per- sia. Battle of Elizabethpol.-Glorious Peace with Persia.-Affairs of Wallachia and Molda- via.-Russian System of Intervention regarding them.-Repeated Insurrections of the Greeks.- Mutual Exasperation of the Greeks and Turks.- Insurrection of Ali Pacha.-Statistics of Greece. -Defensible Nature of the Country.-Clarke's Description of Greece.
GREEK REVOLUTION-BATTLE OF NAVARINO-ES-
TABLISHMENT OF GREEK INDEPENDENCE.
Elements remaining of Grecian Resurrection.-Re- cent favorable Circumstances in the Condition of Greece. Recent Spread of Information, and Pas- sion for Independence.-Formation of the Socie- ty of the Hetairists.-Different Gradations in the Hetairists.-Extraordinary Secrecy preserved re- garding the Affairs of the Society.-Their Eyes are all fixed on Russia.-Cession of Parga in 1819. Consternation of the Pargiotes at their Abandonment.-Heart-rending Scene at the Evac- uation of the Town.-Debates on this Subject in Parliament.-Effect of the Spanish Revolution on Turkey and Greece.-State of Turkey at this Period.Its Weakness in a military point of View. Commencement of the Insurrection in Wallachia. Ipsilanti's Insurrection in Molda- via.-Ipsilanti's first Measures.-Reasons which urged the Emperor Alexander to intervene in Tur- key at this time.-Reasons which induced him to remain neutral. Ethusiasm of the Turks, and Measures taken against Ipsilanti.-Commence- ment of the Insurrection in Greece Proper and the Islands.-The Insurrection spreads over all Greece. Violent Excitement at Constantinople, and Murder of the Patriarch. Succession of Murders by the Turks.-Vigorous Measures of Sultan Mahmoud.-Atrocious Acts of Cruelty in Asia Minor.-Massacres in Cyprus.-Universal Spread of the Insurrection in Greece.-Official Declaration of Russia against Ipsilanti.-Treach- ery and Death of Theodore.-Defeat of the Insur- gents at Galatz.-Disasters of Ipsilanti.-His to- tal Defeat at Dragaschan.-Naval Successes of the Greeks. Bloody Action in Cydonia.-Suc- cesses of the Turks in the Morea.-Battle of Val- tezza. Raising of the Siege of Athens, and De- feat of the Turks in Thermopyla.-Siege of Tri- politza: its Description.-Progress of the Siege. -Storm and Massacre of Tripolitza.-Import- ance of the Conquest, and subsequent Measures of the Greeks. Fresh Massacre of the Chris- tians in Smyrna.-Operations of Chourchid Pa- cha before Janina. Fall and Recapture of Arta. -Failure of the Greeks before Napoli di Roma- nia and Patras.-Forcing of the Line of Cassan- dra.-Operations in Crete.-War with Persia.-- Angry Negotiations with Russia.-Russian Ulti- matum, and its Refusal by the Divan.-Ultima- tum of the Turks.-Efforts of Lord Strangford,
the English Minister, to avert a Rupture.-Alarm- ing State of Constantinople, and Efforts of the Embassadors.-Formation of a Constitution, and Proclamation of independence of Greece.-Ca- pitulation of Ali Pacha.-Perfidious Seizure and Death of Ali Pacha.-Sensation this produced at Constantinople.-Turkish Plan of the Campaign. -Success of the Fleet, and Defeat of Chourchid Pacha by the Souliotes.-Extension of the Insur- rection to Chios.-Frightful Massacre in the Isl- and by the Turks.-General Massacre in the Isl- and.-Signal Retribution which befell the Turks. -Operations of the Greek Fleet against the Turks. -Successful Attack on the Turkish Fleet.-De- struction of the Admiral's Ship.--Renewed Massa- cre in Chios.-Unsuccessful Expedition of Mav- rocordato into Epirus.-Insurrection, and its Sup- pression, in Macedonia.-Grand Invasion of the Morea.-Dangerous Position of the Turks, and able Measures of the Greeks.-Disastrous Retreat of the Turks. Further Successes of the Greeks. -First Siege of Missolonghi.-Operations in Cy- prus and Crete.-Fall of Napoli di Romania.- Fresh naval Successes of the Greeks.-Destruc- tion of another Turkish Ship of the Line.-Glo- rious Results of this Campaign to the Greeks.- Their Losses.-Dreadful Earthquakes in Asia Mi- nor. Negotiations with Russia during the Year. -The Congress of Verona declines to recognize the Greek State.-Revolution at Constantinople in favor of the Janizaries.-Dreadful Fire at Con- stantinople in Spring 1823.-Preparations of the Turks for the next Campaign. - Destruction of Part of Drama-Ali's Corps by Niketas.-Divi- sions among the Greeks-Plan of the Campaign on the part of the Turks.-Dispositions of the Greeks.-Early Successes of the Greeks.-Vic- tory of the Grecks on Mount Helicon.-Divi- sions among the Greeks in the Morea.-Revolt of the Albanians, and Advance of the Pacha of Scodra.-Nocturnal Surprise of the Turks, and Death of Mark Bozzaris.-Commencement of the Siege of Anatolico.-Operations in Candia dur- ing 1823.-Naval Campaign of 1823.-Increased Dissensions in the Morea.-Increasing Interest in Greece abroad. Arrival of Lord Byron at Mis- solonghi.-Continued Divisions of the Greeks.— Contraction of the Greek Loan. - Preparations and Plan of the Campaign by the Turks.-Oper ations of the Turks in the Archipelago.-Attack on Spezzia and Ipsara.-Capture and Destruc- tion of Ipsara.-Glorious Resistance of the Psar- riotes. Immense Spoil made by the Turks in Ipsara. - Gallant Conduct of the Greeks after this Disaster.-Defeat of the Turks in the Straits of Samos.-Junction of the Turkish and Egyp tian Fleets.Naval Victories of the Grecks.- Land Operations in Eastern Grecce. - Results of the Campaign by Sea and Land.-Renewed Dissensions in Greece.-Death of Odysseus.— Curious Statistics of Athens and Attica.-Favor- able Prospects of Greece in the opening of 1825. -Preparations of the Turks.-Landing of Ibra- him Pacha at Modon.-Defeat of the Greeks by Ibrahim Pacha.-Capture of Sphacteria by Ibra- him.-Capture of Navarino.-Naval Successes of the Greeks.-Victory of Sakhtouri over the Capitan Pacha.-Successes of Ibrahim, and gal- lant Resistance near Arcadia.-Further Success- es of Ibrahim, and Capture of Tripolitza-Fresh Defeat of the Greeks. Commencement of the second Siege of Missolonghi, and Description of the Place.-First Operations of the Siege.-Rais- ing of the Blockade of Missolonghi by Sea.-At- tack on the Town by a Mound, and its Defeat.- A third Assault is repulsed.-Critical Position of the Turks, and Preparations of the Sultan.— Heroic Spirit of the Garrison.-Progress of the Turks.-Noble final Resolution of the Garrison. -Greek Plan of a general Sortie.-Commence. ment of the Sortie.-Issue of the Sortie.-Vast Effects of the Siege of Missolonghi, and general
Despondence in Greece.-Deplorable Condition of Greece in the end of 1825 and opening of 1826. -Commencement of the Negotiations for the In- dependence of Greece.-Conclusion of the first Protocol in favor of the Greeks.-Its Provisions. -Operations in Attica.-Deplorable Situation of Greece at this Period.-Naval Operations.-Pro- gress of the Siege of Athens.-Unsuccessful At- tempts to raise the Siege of Athens, and its Fall. -Treaty of 6th July.-Its Provisions.-Counter Manifesto of the Porte.-Strength of the allied Squadron. Preparations of the Porte. - Final Note of the Allies to the Porte.-Ibrahim's War of Extermination in the Morea. Plans of the Admirals in consequence.-Forces on both sides. Commencement of the Battle. - The Battle, and Defeat of the Turks.-Results of the Action. -Ibrahim's Proceedings after the Battle.-Final Rupture of the Turks with the allied Powers.- Universal Transports in Greece at the Battle.-- Immense Sensation produced by the News over Christendom.-Who was the Aggressor at Nava- rino?-The Greek War was a Strife of Religion and Race, not Principles.-The great Error com- mitted was, that the European Nations did not sooner interfere, and in behalf of the Greeks.- Difficulty of the Eastern Question.-The Divi- sion of Race and Religion in Turkey is no Bar to the Establishment of a Christian Monarchy.- Prosperous Condition of Greece since its Inde- pendence.
RUSSIA AND TURKEY, FROM THE ACCESSION OF
NICHOLAS IN 1825, TO THE PEACE OF ADRIANO- PLE IN 1820.
All the Wars of Europe, from 1815 to 1830, were Wars with the Mohammedans. Rupture with the Mohammedan Powers on the Accession of Nicholas. Advantages gained by Russia over Persia.-Repeated Defeats of the Persians by the Russians.-Statistics of Russia at this Period. State of the Negotiations between Russia and Turkey.- Measures contemplated against the Janizaries.-New Statute regarding the Janiza- ries. Insurrection of the Janizaries.-Vigorous Measures of Sultan Mahmoud. - Defeat of the Janizaries.--Cruel Executions in Constantino- ple.-Effect of this Revolution on the Negotia- tions with Russia.-Civil Reforms of the Sultan. Conferences at Ackerman, and Demands of Russia.-The Russian Demands are acceded to without Reservation.- Its Provisions. - Their disastrous Consequences to Turkey.- Sultan Mahmoud continues his Reforms.-Internal Re- forms of Nicholas in Russia.-Operations in Per- - Battle of Djevan-Boulak.- Battle of the Abbarane. - Fall of Sardarabad and Erivan. — Capture of Tauris.-Peace with Persia.-Prepa- rations of Russia for a War with Turkey.-Fresh Rupture with Persia, and Conclusion of the Peace at Tourkmantchai.-Mutual Recriminations of the Russians and Turks.-Forces of the Rus- sians.- Passage of the Pruth, and Commence- ment of the Campaign. - Preparations of the Turks. Forces they had collected in Europe and Asia.-Russian Plan of the Campaign, and its Dangers. Which was mainly based on the Command of the Sea.-Passage of the Danube by the Russians. First Operations: Fall of Kustendji.-Siege of Brahilov: its Description. -Commencement of the Siege.-Bloody Repulse of the Assault.-Fall of the Place --Further Suc cesses of the Russians, and Turkish System of Defense.-Capture of Anapa by the Russians.- Combat of Bazardjik.-Further Cavalry Actions. - General Cavalry Action before Schumla. - Blockade of Schumla, and Plans of the Russians. -Journey of the Emperor to Odessa, and Meas- ures adopted there.-Position of the Russians. Defensive Measures of the Turks.-Operations
before Schumla.-Surprise of a Russian Redoubt. -Attack on Prince Eugene and Eski-Stamboul. -Retreat of the Russians from the South of Schumla.-Operations before Varna.-Attack on Wittgenstein-Siege of Varna.-Advance of the Turks to raise the Siege.-Bloody Defeat of the Russians.-The Siege is not interrupted.-Fall of Varna.-Reflections on this Surrender.-Op- erations before Widdin. Abandonment of the Siege of Silistria, and Retreat of the Russians beyond the Danube.-Disastrous Retreat of Witt- genstein. - Commencement of the Campaign in Asia.- Description of the Theatre of War. Siege of Kars, and its Description.-Its Fall.— Appearance of the Plague in the Russian Army. Capture of Akhalzikh.-March upon Akhal- zikh. Paskewitch's Plan of Attack, and its Chances. Nocturnal Attack on the Turkish Camp. Its perilous Chances.-Desperate Con- flict on the Heights.-Total Defeat of the Turks. -Assault of the Town.-Frightful Assault of the Town. Reduction of Alskhur and Ardagan.-- Operations on the Russian Flanks, and Results of the Campaign.-Paskewitch's Plans, and For- mation of Mohammedan Corps. - Vigorous de- fensive Measures of the Porte in Asia during the Winter.-Assassination of the Russian Minister at Teheran, and Siege of Akhalzikh by the Turks. -Siege of the Fortress by the Turks.-Extreme Danger of the besieged. Their Deliverance.- Measures of Paskewitch against the Persians.- Opening of the Campaign with the Turks.-De- feat of Hadgi Hassan. Paskewitch's Disposi tions, and Position of the Turks.-Paskewitch's Plan of Attack.-Subsequent Movements of Pas- kewitch. - Advance upon Kainly, and Disposi- tions of Attack.--Battle of Kainly.-Success of the Russians in the Centre and on the left.-De- feat of the Seraskier.-Storming of the intrenched Camp at Milli-Duz.-Results of these Conflicts. -Advance of Paskewitch against Hassan-Kale, and its Fall.-Fall of Erzeroum.-Further Move- ments.-Submission of the Pacha of Mush, and of Baibout.-Disaster before Khart.-Retreat of Paskewitch to Erzeroum.-Defeat of the Turks in Guriel, and subsequent Checks of the Rus- sians. Advance of Paskewitch against Baibout. -Total Defeat of the Turks, and Termination of the Campaign.-Conclusion of an Armistice, and Summary of the Campaign.-Preparations of the Turks for the Campaign in Turkey in Europe.- Preparations of the Russians.-Operations dur- ing the Winter. - Retirement of Wittgenstein, and Appointment of Diebitch to the Command-in- Chief Naval Forces of the Russians and Turks. -Russian Plan of the Campaign, and Turkish, and Repulse of the latter at Sizepolis.-Com- mencement of the Campaign on both Sides.- Bloody Combats at Eski-Arnautlar.-Commence- ment of the Siege of Silistria, and its Descrip- tion-First Operations of the Siege, and Red- schid Pacha's Movement against Pravadi.-Die- bitch throws himself on the Turkish Communi- cations:--Description of the Country, and Move- ments of the Armies.-Turkish Movements.-Bat- tle of Kouleftscha.-Fresh Dispositions of Die. bitch.-Victory of the Russians.-Measures of Diebitch after the Battle.-Progress of the Siege of Silistria, and its Fall. Description of the Passes of the Balkan.-Diebitch's Preparations for passing the Balkan.-Passage of the Balkan. -Subsequent Movements of the Turks and Rus- sians. Successful Attack on the Turks at Sliw- no--Advance upon Adrianople and its Capture. -Extended Positions of the Russians. - Un- bounded Alarm at Constantinople, London, and Vienna. Treaty of Adrianople.-Convention re- garding Wallachia and Moldavia.-Irruption of the Pacha of Scodra.-Affairs of Greece in 1828. -Progress of the Greeks in 1829.-Convention of March 22, 1829, regarding the Limits of Greece. -Reflections on this Convention.-Remarkable
FRANCE FROM THE DEATH OF LOUIS XVIII. TO THE ACCESSION OF THE POLIGNAC ADMINISTRATION.
Great Advantages of Charles X. on his Accession to the Throne.-Character of Charles X.-His Defects. The Duke d'Angoulême is declared Dauphin.-The Secret Camarilla of Ecclesias- tics.-Entry of the King into Paris.-Abolition of the Censorship of the Press. Dangers of this Step.--Increase of the Jesuits' Influence at the Court, and their Efforts in the Country.-Strength of the Jesuit Party in the Legislature and the Administration.-Their Opponents in the Cham- bers and the Press. - General Prosperity in France. Injudicious Measure regarding the Army. Opening of the Chambers: comparative Strength of Parties.-Flourishing State of the Finances.-Restoration of the Estates of the Or- leans Family.-Law of Indemnity to the Sufferers by the Revolution.-Argument of M. de Martig. nac in favor of the Measure.-Embarrassment of the Government from other Claims.-Argument against the Project by the Liberals.-Beneficial Results of this Measure.--Distribution of the In- demnity large Share which fell to the Duke of Orleans and other Liberals.-Law against Sacri- lege.-Law regarding religious Societies of Wo- men. Measure of M. de Villèle for the Reduc- tion of the Debt. - Coronation of the King at Rheims.-Prosecutions against the Liberal Press. -Death and Character of General Foy.-Death and Character of M. de Serres.-Recognition of the Independence of St. Domingo.-Negotiations for the Independence of the Spanish Colonies.- Legislative Measures regarding St. Domingo.- Law of Entail: its Necessity.-Argument against the Law by M. Pasquier.-Answer of the Gov- ernment.-Result of the Debate.-Reflections on this Subject.-Statistics of Finances of 1826 and 1827.--Measures of the Jesuits. - Preceptor to the Duke of Bordeaux.-Denunciation of the Jes- uits by Count Montlouis.-Answer of the Jes- uits.-Law against the Liberty of the Press.-Its Provisions.-Universal Indignation which it ex- cites.--Passing of the Law in a mitigated Form. -Riot at the Funeral of the Duke de la Rouche- foucauld.-Review of the National Guard.-Dis- banding of the National Guard.-Its immediate Success, and ultimate Effects.-Reflections on this Event.-Treaty of 6th July on Greece, and Convention regarding the Slave-Trade.--Finan- cial Projects and Embarrassment of the Govern- ment.-A Dissolution resolved on.-New Crea- tion of Peers, and Dissolution of the Chambers.- Formation of the Parties, and Preparations for a moral Struggle on both Sides.-Elections and Riots in Paris.--Mutual Recriminations of Min- isters and the Jesuits.-Dissolution of the Villèle Administration.-Reproaches addressed to him from both Parties.-Character of M. de Martig- nac.- -The new Ministry had not the Confidence of the King. Answer of the King to the Address. -Legislative Measures of the Session.-It pass- es the Peers.-New Law regarding the Press.— Law against the Jesuits. Indignation excited among the Jesuits; but the Pope approves the Measure-Preparations for a Change of Minis. try. Opening of the Chambers. Remarkable Speech of Prince Polignac.-State of Parties in the Assembly.-Law for the departmental Munic-
ipalities, and its Defeat.-The King withdraws his Measures-State of the Legislature at the Close of the Session.-Conferences of the King and the extreme Royalists. - Change of Ministry, and Prince Polignac Premier. - Importance of the Change.
FRANCE FROM THE ACCESSION OF THE POLIGNAC MINISTRY TO THE FALL OF CHARLES X.
Prince Polignac: his Biography.-His Character. -Character of M. de la Bourdonnaye.-M. de Bourmont.-M. de Montbel, M. de Courvoisin, and M. de Chabrol. Extreme Violence of the Liberal Press at the Ministry, and Preparations of the Liberals.-Lafayette's triumphant Journey in the South.-Retreat of M. de la Bourdonnaye. -M. Guizot: his Biography.-His Character as a Writer and Statesman.-M. Berryer.-M. Thiers.-Prince Polignac's Memoir.--Vast Influ- ence of the Press in France. - Vehement Hos- tility of the Press to the Polignac Ministry.- Opening of the Chambers.-Votes on the Presi- dency, and Address of the Chambers.-Debate on the Address.-M. Berryer's Argument against it. Answer of M. Guizot and the Liberals. Vote on the Subject.-Measures of Ministers in consequence. -The King's Answer to the Ad- dress.-Prorogation of the Chambers, and gener- al Agitation it excited.-Prosecutions against the Press-Report of the Finance Minister.--Its im- portant statistical Details.-Indirect Taxes and general Revenue.-Public Debt.-General Pros- perity which prevailed in the Country.-General Prosperity and Discontent.-Expedition of Al- giers.-Grounds of the Quarrel with Algiers, and Negotiations with England on the Subject.-Mag- nitude of the Expedition, and its Departure.- Landing at Sidi-Feruch, near Algiers.--Battle of Sidi-Feruch.-Second Victory of the French.- Commencement of the Attack on Algiers, and Fall of the Emperor's Fort.-Fall of Algiers.-- Statistics of Algiers. Secret Agreement with Russia for extending the French Frontier to the Rhine. Dissolution of the Chambers. - Result of the Elections.-Resolution of the Cabinet.— Resolution of the Cabinet on a Coup-d'état.-Re- port on the Ordonnance by M. de Chantelauze.- Lamartine on this Report.-The Ordonnances.- Signing of the Ordonnances.-Reflections on the Ordonnances.-Total Want of Preparation for the Coup-d'état on the part of Ministers.-First Ef- fect of the Ordonnances.-Commencement of the Insurrection: Signing of the Protest.-The first Disturbance.-Attitude and extraordinary Secu- rity of the Court.-Rapid Progress of the Insur- rection. Meeting of the Liberal Chiefs at Casi- mir Perier's. Marmont's Plan of Operations, and Commencement of the Conflict.-Vehement Contest on the 28th.-Measures of the Govern- ment and Marshal Marmont.-Marmont's offens- ive Measures, and their temporary Success. Operations of the second Column.-Disaster of the third Column.-Proceedings of the Liberal Chiefs-State of Affairs at St. Cloud, and firm- ness of the King.-Feelings of the Combatants during the Night.-Forces on the opposite Sides on the morning of the 29th.-Mission of M. Ara- go to Marmont.--Decisive Resolution of the Dep- uties at M. Lafitte's.-Interview with M. de Se- monville and M. d'Argout.-The Louvre is car- ried by the Insurgents. Decisive Effects of this Success.-Marmont's first Interview with Charles X. at St. Cloud.-Deliberation in the Council.- The King submits, dismisses his Ministers, and sends for M. de Montemart-Ineffectual Attempt to make a Ministry under M. de Montemart.- Completion of the Revolution at Paris. -Last Attempt at a Negotiation.-The Duke of Orleans refuses the Lieutenancy-General of the Kingdom. -Violent Scene between the Duke d'Angoulême |
and Marmont.-Abdication of Charles X.-Revo- lutionary Army which set out from Paris for Ram- bouillet.-Falsehoods told the King by Marshal Maison.-Journey to Maintenon, and Farewell to the Guard.-Journey to Cherbourg. Adieu to the last of the Guard at Valognes.-Last Inter- view of the King and Prince Polignac.-His Em barkation at Cherboug.-Reflections on the Fall of the Restoration.-Charles's Error in the Con- flict. Difference between the Situation of France and England in this respect.-Secret Objects of the Liberal Opposition in France at this Period. -Great Error in the King in the Ground he took for Resistance.--Extraordinary Want of Prepara- tion on the part of the Government.-Great Fault of Government in not at once arresting the Lead- ers of the Liberals. - Ruinous Effects of the Treachery of the Troops.-Ruinous Effects of this military Treachery on the Cause of Freedom in France. Great Error of the military Command- ers on this Occasion.-Cause of this in the Com- position of the French Army.-Military Errors committed on the Occasion.-Mode of combating an urban Insurrection.-Dangerous Influence of the Parti-prêtre on the Government. - Strange Vehemence of the Opposition which the Resto- ration experienced in France.-Though the Con- stitution was then as popular as the Country could bear. Obloquy thrown on the Bourbons from their having succeeded after the national Disas- ters. Effect of the Continuance of Peace in France. Which thwarted the strongest Passions of the Revolution.-Which was the Reason why the Expeditions to Spain and Algiers were un- dertaken. Political Reasons on which these Projects were founded.-Ruinous Effects of the Destruction of the Aristocracy in France.-Gen- eral Absence of the Restraint of Religion in the Towns. Number of natural Children in the great Towns.-Effect of this in a political Point of View. It produced 80,000 bastard Combat- ants in Paris. Curious Circumstance which mitigated these Evils.-Decline in the material Comforts of the working Classes.-Causes of this miserable State of the working Classes.-Way in which the Division of Land affected the Industry of the Country.-Immense Burdens on the Land in France.-Crowding of the Inhabitants of Towns from these Causes.-Effect of the Destruction. of commercial Capital during the Revolution.- Excessive general Competition, and wretched State of the working Classes. Want of any Representation of the working Classes.-Were the Ordonnances illegal?- Previous Instances of royal Ordonnances not objected to.-Reasons why Coups d'état are necessary in France.-Con- duct of the King.
LITERATURE OF FRANCE DURING AND AFTER THE
Great Effect of the Revolution on the Literature of France. Its distinguishing Features.- Vio- lent Antagonism between the opposite Schools. -Character of the romantic School.-Pernicious Character of their Works of Imagination.-Cor- rupt Character of their Drama.-Chateaubriand. -Sketch of his Life.-His Character as a Writ- er. His Beauties.-His Influence in reviving the Spirit of Christianity.-Peculiarity of his Style on religious Subjects, and its Apology.— His Defects.-Madame de Stael as a political Writer. Her Character as a Novelist. - Her Merits as a Critic.-Her Merits as a Philoso- pher. Guizot: his early Rise. His peculiar Style of Thought.-His Style of Writing.-His Mode of reviewing human Affairs.-His chief Publications. - Lamartine. - His Defects as a Historian.-His Defects.-His Want of Authori- ties in his Writings, and personal Vanity.-Sis- mondi. His social and political Essays.-His
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