similar internal cavities, but being frequently excavated in parts which had before been solid. During all these gradual alterations of shape, however, there is no stretching of elastic parts, for all the osseous fibres and lamina are rigid and unyielding, and in this respect retain an analogy with shell. The changes thus observed can have been effected in no other way than by the actual removal of such parts of the young bone as had occupied the situations where vacuities are found to exist in the old bone. We find, for instance, that in the early state of a bone there are no internal cavities, but the whole is a uniform solid mass. At a certain stage of ossification cells are excavated by the action of the absorbent vessels, which carry away portions of bony matter lying in the axis of the cylindrical or in the middle layer of the flat bones. Their place is supplied by an oily matter, which is the marrow. As the growth proceeds, while new layers are deposited on the outside of the bone and at the end of the long fibres, the internal layers near the centre are removed by the absorbent vessels, so that the cavity is further enlarged. In this manner the outermost layer of the young bone gradually changes its relative situation, becoming more and more deeply buried by the new layers which are successively deposited, and which cover and surround it; until by the removal of all the layers situated nearer to the centre it becomes the innermost layer, and is itself destined in its turn to disappear, leaving the new bone without a single particle which had entered into the composition of the original structure.

or are again applied to any other use in it, undergo decom position, in order that part of their elements may be employed in forming new compounds, while the remainder may be rejected by some of the excretory passages. I should be inclined therefore,' says this physiologist, to say that the phosphate of lime while forming a part of an organized body is alive, because the bone is so generally; but the phosphate of lime or its elements while they are circulating in the blood or passing off by the kidney or alimentary canal, cease to be so, in the same manner as the carbon which is expired from the lungs, or the mucus which is expelled from the mouth, are not considered as being alive, although they may perhaps a short time before have been employed in the composition of a muscle or nerve. This view of the subject will lead us to reject the mechanical idea which has been entertained by some physiologists, that the earthy matter of the bones is simply deposited in the interstices of the membrane, and has its particles kept together merely by the cells in which they are lodged. I conceive that the earthy particles have an affinity for each other, and perhaps for the membrane by which they are combined in a form that belongs to them as necessarily as to any of the soft parts, although it produces in them a peculiar arrangement which may not be found in any other substance.' (Monro's Outlines of the Anatomy of the Human Body; Bostock's Elements of Physiology; Roget's Animal and Vegetable Physiology; Sir Charles Bell's Lectures on the Hunterian Preparations in the Museum of the Royal ColIt has been found that, by mixing certain colouring sub-lege of Surgeons, in illustration of Anatomy and Physiostances with the food of animals, the bones will soon become deeply tinged by them. This fact was discovered accidentally by Mr. Belchier, who gives the following account of the circumstances that led him to notice it. Happening to be dining with a calico-printer on a leg of fresh pork, he was surprised to observe that the bones, instead of being white as usual, were of a deep red colour; and on inquiring into the circumstances he learned that the pig had been fed upon the refuse of the dyeing vats, which contained a large quantity of the colouring substance of madder. So curious a fact naturally attracted a good deal of attention among physiologists, and many experiments were undertaken to ascertain the time required to produce this change, and to determine whether the effect was permanent or only temporary. The red tinge was found to be communicated much more quickly to the bones of growing animals than to those which had already attained their full size. Thus the bones of a young pigeon were tinged of a rose colour in twenty-four hours, and of a deep scarlet in three days; while in the adult bird fifteen days were required merely to produce the rose colour. The dye was more intense in the solid parts of those bones which were nearest to the centre of circulation, while in bones of equal solidity, but more remote from the heart, the tinge was fainter. The bone was of a deeper dye in proportion to the length of time the animal had been fed upon the madder. When this diet had been discontinued the colour became gradually more faint till it entirely disappeared.

From the whole of what has been stated it is manifest that bone possesses blood-vessels, nerves, absorbents, and all the parts that form the essential constituents of an organized and living body. It is as much alive as the heart or the brain. In its natural and healthy state it has indeed but few blood-vessels, and still fewer nerves, and the existence of absorbents is rather inferred than demonstrated, these vessels being too minute to be visible; but their existence is inferred as well from analogy as from many of the phenomena which have been detailed, and which are wholly inexplicable but upon the supposition of the existence and action of these vessels. Moreover, bone is subject to all the diseases of living parts, inflammation, tumefaction, suppuration, and gangrene, and when diseased it often becomes exquisitely sensible. There is indeed no difficulty in supposing that the animal matter is alive, but how is it possible for life to be attached to an earthy salt? Yet on a careful examination of this subject, as has been forcibly urged by Dr. Bostock, it will be found no easy matter to point out any essential difference between the earthy and the animal substance. Both are derived from the blood; both are deposited by vessels connected with the arterial system; both possess a specific determinate arrangement; both after a certain period are taken up by the absorbents and again carried into the mass of the circulating fluids: both, before they are ultimately expelled from the system

logy; Abernethy's Physiological Lectures; Southwood Smith's Philosophy of Health.)

BONES have been of late years very extensively used as manure, especially on poor and dry sands and gravels. Many cargoes from abroad have been imported for this purpose into the eastern ports of Britain. Bones have thus become a considerable article of commerce with Germany, Belgium, and Holland: so much so that the governments of some of these countries have had it in contemplation to subject them to an export duty.

Experiments on bones as a manure were made long before their use was extensively adopted, and these, in general, were not attended with a very favourable result, in consequence of the bones not being broken into sufficiently small pieces, or being put upon the land in too fresh a state. But since mills have been erected to crush them to a small size, and the proper use of them has been ascertained, the advantage of this manure, in distant and uncultivated spots, where the carriage of common stable or yard manure would have been too expensive, and where it could not be made for want of food for cattle, is incalculable. By means of bones large tracts of barren sands and heaths have been converted into fertile fields.

The bruising or grinding of bones has become a distinct business, and they may be bought in London and at the principal ports ready to put upon the land. They are broken into different sizes, and are accordingly called inch bones, half-inch bones, and dust. Most of the bones procured from London and the manufacturing towns have undergone the process of boiling, by which the oil and a great part of the gelatine which they contain have been extracted.

At first sight we should be led to imagine, that having lost much of the rich animal matter which they contained, they would be proportionably less effective in the soil. This, however, does not seem to be the case from the comparative experiments made with bones which had been subjected to boiling, and those which were quite fresh. All those who have used bones extensively report, that little difference can be observed between them: some even give the preference to those from which the oil and glue have been extracted. But oil and glue form excellent manures. How is this to be explained? It appears, from the result of many experiments, that bones do not furnish much nourishment to the roots of plants until they have undergone a certain degree of decomposition. The fat and the gelatine, being intimately blended with the bony matter, and contained in cavities or cells, may remain a long time in the earth without decomposition. As a proof of this, it has been found that bones which had lain in the earth for many centuries, on spots where antient battles were fought, afforded, on analysis, nearly as much gelatinous matter, by the abstraction of the earthy parts, as fresh bones would have done. Bones analysed by Fourcroy and Vauquelin were found to consist of

It would seem, then, that the great effect of bones, as a manure, must depend on the phosphate of lime; and the effect of bone-ashes seems to strengthen this opinion. But a close examination of the fields manured with bones has led us to surmise, that much of their importance depends on the mechanical texture of the bone, and on its power of absorbing and retaining moisture; for if a plant, which vegetates with peculiar vigour in a field manured with bones be pulled up, it will be almost invariably found that small pieces of bone are attached to the roots; and when these are minutely examined, the smaller fibres of the roots will be found to have grasped them, and to pervade their cavities, which will always be found more or less moist. The moisture, then, and a small portion of the remaining gelatine dissolved in it, forms the food on which the plant has thriven. The more the bones have undergone fermentation, the more soluble the gelatine will be. In its fresh state, it is only soluble in very warm water, and the oil repels moisture. This accounts for the seeming anomaly of the superiority of boiled bones. They have undergone a fermentation. The residue, although not deprived of all its animal matter, is much more porous, and will imbibe and retain moisture in its pores. The food of the plants is here ready prepared and dissolved, and kept in store without being in danger of being washed through a porous soil or evaporated by the heat. The solid substance, which is chiefly phosphate of lime, has a stimulating effect, and assists that of the more soluble parts. But phosphate of lime is not soluble in water, and does not decompose readily in the earth; its effect therefore is not so great as to account for the general result. The universal experience of all those who have used bones as a manure proves that they are of little or no use in very stiff or wet soils. In stiff clays the pieces of bone are bedded in a tough substance, which prevents their decomposition; and in very wet soils the advantage of these small but numerous reservoirs of moisture is lost. Hence it is easily seen why bones are of less use in such soils.

proved method, and the crop for which they are best adapted is turnips, after the land has been well cleaned and tilled. About twenty-five bushels per acre is sufficient to produce a good crop on poor light sands, and it does not appear that beyond this quantity they have a proportional effect. It is better therefore to repeat the dressing than to put on much at once. When used as a top-dressing for grass-land, they have, in some instances, produced a great and very durable improvement, when the quantity was large; but in most other cases it has been found much more advantageous to reserve them for turnips or corn. Bones have been drilled with wheat, at the rate of thirty bushels of bones and two and a half of wheat per acre, and a good crop (twenty-four bushels per acre) has been obtained on very poor soil: while portions of the same field sown without any bones, in order to ascertain the effect, did not produce sufficient plants to cover the ground or return the seed.

When bones are compared with farm-yard dung the result has been various, and chiefly owing to the seasons and the nature of the land. In strong loams or in very moist seasons the farm-yard dung, put on at the rate of from ten to fifteen tons per acre, has decidedly the advantage, not only for the turnips but for the subsequent crops. On very dry gravelly soils and in dry summers the bones produced the best turnips; and when the comparative cost is taken into consideration, and the saving of time in the light carriage of the bones, it will be seen that the bones are much more economical. Besides this, farm-yard or stable dung cannot always be procured in any considerable quantity, while bones may be had almost to any amount, if bespoken in proper time. Many large tracts of waste land have been brought into cultivation by means of bones, as the only manure which could be procured, and without which they must have remained in a barren state. Bones have also been compared with rape cake and malt-dust, but there has not been a sufficient number of experiments, made carefully, to give an accurate comparison. It is highly probable that these last, when they can be procured sufficiently cheap, would greatly assist the effect of bones if mixed with them, and would render the success of a crop of turnips more certain under all circumstances of soil or season. Every prac-. tical farmer knows that a good crop of turnips is the foundation of all the subsequent crops in the course. A great advantage of manuring land with bones is that they introduce no weeds, which farm-yard dung inevitably does. This But it is ascertained that the effect of bones on the crop is probably the reason why they have been chiefly used on is much increased when they have been previously mixed in land which has been fallowed; and turnips being the usual heaps with ashes, burnt clay, or light loam, or made into a crop first sown on such light lands as are most benefited by compost with the dung of animals, and with vegetable sub-bone-manure, the greatest number of experiments have been stances. In this case, the fresh bones will evidently be made with this crop. That they are an excellent addition much more advantageous than those which have been to the list of artificial manures previously used is very clearly boiled; for the fermentation will extract and decompose the shown by the answers to queries made by the Doncaster oil and a great part of the gelatine, which, mixed with the Agricultural Association, of which an interesting report other ingredients of the compost, will much enrich them; has been published. Whatever difference there may be while the bony residue will be in the same state as it would in the opinion of some of the numerous agriculturists have been if the bones had come from the boiling-house. who have sent answers on this subject, as to the effect of By comparing all the facts, we naturally come to the con- bones on different soils, all who have tried them to any exclusion, that the most economical use of bones is to extract tent have continued the use of them. This simple circumfrom them the oil and gelatine, which, if not of sufficient stance says more in favour of bones than the most elaborate value for the manufacture of glue or of ammonia, may be argument, and the only question will be, at what expense used as a supplementary food for pigs, in the form of a they may be procured, and on what lands they have the broth or pot liquor, which, mixed with meal, will greatly best effect. When the immense quantity of bones from the accelerate their growth or increase their fat. For this pur- cattle daily slaughtered is considered, and the readiness pose the bones should be broken in the mill to a moderate with which any commodity for which there is a demand is size, like those called inch bones; they should then be procured in commerce, there can be no great fear of a deboiled or steamed for several hours, and the liquor strained; ficient supply. But it is probable that the price may be so this, on cooling, will be found to form an animal jelly of increased by a great demand as to make it a matter of nice more or less strength, which may be thickened by boiling, calculation, whether their use may be attended with profit and finally dried into a glue or portable soup, which will or not. If once they are very generally used, their price will keep for a considerable time. arrive at a maximum, and find its natural level. At present they may be obtained in London and at the principal ports for about 2s. per bushel coarsely ground, and 2s. 6d. to 38. when in a finer state; and at that price, with a small addition for carriage, they will be found the cheapest manure that can be purchased for dry, gravelly, and sandy soils.

The price of fuel and attendance being calculated, it will be seen whether this operation is a real economy or not; if not, the bones may be allowed to ferment in a heap, being mixed with sand or coal-ashes. In this case, they may be ground at once to the size called half-inch; in the other, they may be passed again through the mill after having been boiled.

The mode of applying bone manure to the land is either by sowing from twenty to forty bushels of them per acre by the hand broadcast, as is done with corn, and harrowing them in with the seed; or by putting them into the drills by a machine made for the purpose, which is an addition to the common drilling machine. This is the most ap

The mill which is used to break and grind bones consists of two iron or steel cylinders, with grooves running round their circumference, the projections being cut so as to form strong teeth. These turn upon one another by means of machinery, so that the teeth of one run in the groove between the teeth of the other, as may be seen in the annexed cut.

An instrument has also been invented for distributing

The other works of Bonet attest his industry, but are of less utility: Mercurius Compilatitius, seu Index MedicoPracticus, Geneva, 1683, fol.; Medicina Septentrionalis Collatitia,' Geneva, 1685, 2 vols. fol.; Polyalthes,' 3 vols. fol. Geneva, 1690, 1691, 1693. This is a bulky commentary on ‘Johnstoni Syntagma Nosocomices.'

Bonet became subject to dropsy, and died on the 29th of March, 1689, in the seventieth year of his age. He possessed great knowledge, and was distinguished for his modesty and affability. (Eloy, Dictionnaire Historique.)

ployment of signs, which though in some degree unlike at first, would become modified and assimilated by intercourse. The auxiliaries which Bonet made use of in the instruction of deaf-mutes were artificial pronunciation, the manual alphabet, writing, and gesture or the language of signs. Minute details of the proceedings of the instructor on these several heads are contained in his work. He taught his pupils to understand the Spanish language, and the rules of grammar. His work fully explains how he proceeded with the three sorts of words into which he divides the language, namely, nouns, verbs, and conjunctions; and from BONFA'DIO, JA'COPO, was born in the beginning of the simple name of an object to words which express the the sixteenth century at Gazzano, near Sald, on the banks moral dispositions and the affections of the heart. The of the lake of Garda. He studied at Padua, and aftermanner of teaching the different kinds of conjunctions and wards proceeded to Rome, where he became secretary to verbs is also carefully explained. The philosophical views Cardinal di Bari, with whom he remained three years, presented in the latter portion of his work are replete with which he mentions in his letters as the happiest of his life. practical utility, and are in many respects similar to those Cardinal di Bari having died, Bonfadio entered the service which are acted upon at the different institutions for the of Cardinal Ghinucci, but here he met with an enemy deaf and dumb, in this and other countries. This is the in the person of another dependant of the Cardinal, on work which the Abbé de l'Epée designates as one of his whose account Bonfadio left. He was on the point of going 'excellent guides' in the earlier part of his experience as to Spain with an envoy of the Duke of Mantua to Charles V. an instructor of the deaf and dumb, and the manual alpha- when the envoy suddenly died. He then went to Naples, bet which the abbé adopted, and which is at present used where he became intimate with Pietro Carnesecchi, who was in the institutions on the continent of Europe and in Ame- afterwards burnt at Rome for heresy. From Naples Bonrica, is nearly the same as the one given in that work. An fadio wandered about several parts of Italy, until he was inaccount of the success of Bonet has been left by Sir Kenelm vited by Bembo, who was then living at Padua, to come to his Digby, in his treatise Of Bodies,' from which it appears house, about 1540, and undertake the education of Bembo's that the pupil not only understood others when they spoke, son Torquato. Bonfadio appears to have remained at Padua but also spoke himself so that others could understand him. five years. From Padua he now and then visited the banks "What at the first he was laughed at for made him, after of his native lake, and also occasionally Coloniola, a villa of some years, be looked on as if he had wrought a miracle. his learned friend Marc Antonio Flaminio. He has praised, In a word, after strange patience, constancy, and pains, he both in his Italian letters and in his Latin verses, the pleasant brought the young lord to speak as distinctly as any man scenery of those places. At one time he had the idea of whoever; and to understand so perfectly what others said, founding an Academy on the banks of the lake of Garda, that he would not lose a word in a whole day's conversation.' and he applied to Count Martinengo and other noblemen of (Of Bodies and of Man's Soul, chap. 28. p. 319.) Sir Kenelm Brescia to countenance his project. Having accepted in Digby and other authors speak of Bonet as a priest: he is 1545 the professorship of philosophy in Genoa, he was comalso said to have been in the service of the prince of Carig- missioned to write the history of the republic. He began it nan, and to have continued his employment as a teacher of from the year 1528, where Foglietta had closed his narrathe deaf and dumb for many years. tive, and continued it till the year 1550. The work, which is written in Latin, is entitled Annalium Genuentium Libri Quinque, and was published after his death at Pavia, 1586. It was translated into Italian and published at Genoa the same year. Both the text and the translation were published at Brescia, 1759. In describing the organic changes effected in the constitution by Andrea Doria in 1528, the conspiracy of Fieschi, and other then recent events, Bonfadio spoke of several individuals connected with those factions in a tone which probably offended their relatives, who were still powerful at Genoa. However this may be, he was arrested in the year 1550, beheaded in prison, and his body publicly burnt. Of the contemporary writers who relate this catastrophe, some are silent about the charges against him, and others hint that he was sentenced upon an accusation of unnatural practices, but in reality through political animosity, or, as it was called, 'reason of state. Mazzuchelli gives at length, with his usual accuracy, all these various authorities, and concludes by leaving the question of Bonfadio's guilt involved in doubt, as he could find no documents existing at Genoa of the trial. The register of the prison merely states the sentence, but does not give the charge. The proceedings of trials at that time were secret, and even the charges on which capital sentences were founded were not always made known to the public. Bonfadio's Genoese Annals' are generally admired for their style, which in many passages reminds the reader of Sallust. Bonfadio's Italian Letters, already mentioned, have been collected and published by Mazzuchelli, Brescia, 1746. They are considered among the best specimens of Italian epistolary composition, and are also interesting for the descriptions of places, manners, and incidents. He also wrote Carmina, 12mo., Verona, 1740; Rime, which are praised by Crescimbeni, and are found scattered in various collections; and an Italian translation of Cicero pro Milone.

BONET, THEOPHILUS, an eminent physician, was born at Geneva on the 5th of March, 1620. His family was originally Italian and of noble rank, but his ancestors had removed from Rome to the south of France about a century previous, in order to enjoy the free exercise of their religion. His grandfather being compelled to have recourse to some means of gaining a livelihood, chose the profession of medicine, and obtained such eminence, that he was invited to Turin to become physician to Charles-Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy. But he appears to have possessed too much independence of mind to have retained the court favour, and he consequently removed to Lyons. Here, in 1556, Andrew Bonet was born. He also practised medicine, and after losing his first wife he removed to Geneva, where, having married a second time, he had two sons, John and Theophilus. The hereditary celebrity of the family determined both to study medicine; but though the former arrived at great eminence, he left no work to testify his ability. Theophilus, after having visited many of the most celebrated universities, took the degree of doctor of medicine in 1643. Soon after this the Duke of Longueville appointed him his physician, and he quickly rose to eminence by the success of his treatment.

During the course of his practice he was diligent in collecting observations on the progress and terminations of diseases, which formed the basis of his subsequent publications. His earliest work was Pharos Medicorum, id est, Cautela, Animadversiones et Observationes Practica, Geneva, 1668, 2 vols. 12mo. Each time this work was reprinted he enlarged it and altered the title, so that the edition of 1679 was called Labyrinthus Medicus extricatus, 4to. Geneva; and that of 1687, Methodus Vitandorum Errorum qui in Praxi occurrunt.' 4to.

Incurable deafness having compelled him to retire from practice, he devoted his time to digesting his observations, and published his celebrated work, in 1679, entitled Sepulchretum, seu Anatomia Practica,' 2 vols. folio, Geneva, which Mangetus republished with additions at Geneva in 1700, 3 vols. folio. This formed the basis of the great work of Morgagni, De Causis et Sedibus Morborum,' who highly esteemed the labours of his predecessor. Lieutaud also availed himself of this valuable repertory of facts in morbid anatomy.

BONIFACE 1. was elected bishop of Rome after the death of Zosimus, A.D. 419. Part of the clergy, supported by Symmachus, prefect of Rome, elected Eulalius, but the Emperor Honorius, who was then at Ravenna, confirmed Boniface's election. Several letters from Boniface to the bishops of Gaul, concerning matters of discipline, and to the bishops of Africa, who would not allow of appeals to the see of Rome, are in Constant's collection, and give a favour

VOL. V.-X

and property of every sort. Further, he proclaimed a crusade against them, besieged Preneste, which he took and razed to the ground; and he destroyed likewise Zagarolo and Colonna, fiefs of the same family. The two cardinals escaped to France, and Sciarra their uncle was obliged to conceal himself in the forests near Anzio, whence he afterwards escaped by sea only to fall into the hands of pirates.

able opinion of his character and learning. He asserted the authority of the Roman see over the churches of Illyricum, upon which contested point there are letters extant from Boniface to Rufus, bishop of Thessalonica, and also between the two emperors, Arcadius and Honorius. Boniface died A.D. 423, and was succeeded by Celestinus I. BONIFACE II. succeeded Felix IV. in 530. It is recorded of him that, although a native of Rome, he was the son of a Goth. His was also a disputed election. Part of Boniface proclaimed the first jubilee in the year 1300, the Roman clergy assembled in the Basilica Julia chose granting by a bull a plenary indulgence to all those who Dioscorus, while the rest met in the Basilica of Constan- should visit the sanctuaries of Rome in that year. This tine for the election of Boniface. The schism lasted only attracted an immense multitude of foreigners to Rome. The twenty-eight days, when Dioscorus fell ill and died. Boni-historian Villani, who went there himself, reckons the face passed several regulations against bribery in the elec- number of strangers at 200,000 at one time, and the chrotions of bishops, and he also condemned the practice of a nicle of Asti states the number of all those who visited bishop appointing his own successor. Platina, Vitæ Pontif. Rome during that year at two millions. This jubilee He died in 532, and was succeeded by John II. brought to Rome a vast quantity of money. Before Boniface's time plenary indulgence had been granted only to those who went to the crusades for the deliverance of the Holy Land.

BONIFACE V., a Neapolitan, who died in 622, and was succeeded by Honorius I.

BONIFACE VI., a native of Tuscany, and son of the Bishop Adrian, succeeded Formosus in 895, and died fifteen days after his election. He was succeeded by Stephen VII. BONIFACE VII., Cardinal Franco or Francone, was elected in a popular tumult, when Benedict VI. was seized and strangled in 974. Boniface himself was expelled from Rome in the following year, having incurred general detestation through his licentiousness and cruelty. Boniface is not considered a legitimate pope, though his name is registered as such in most chronological tables. He returned to Rome in 985, and put John XIV. in prison, where he died of hunger, as it is reported. Boniface again assumed the papal dignity, which he retained a few months, till August of the same year, when he died, and John XV. was elected

BONIFACE III. was elected in March, 607, and died in November of the same year. He obtained of the Emperor Phocas the acknowledgment of the supremacy of the see of Rome over all other churches. This circumstance renders Boniface, still aiming at the reduction of Sicily, sent for his pontificate remarkable. He was succeeded by Charles de Valois, brother of Philip le Bel, king of France. BONIFACE IV., who consecrated the Pantheon, having On arriving at Florence Charles supported the faction of first removed the images of the heathen gods, and dedi- the Neri, by which Dante and many others were exiled. cated it to the Virgin Mary and all the martyrs. He He then went over to Sicily, but after a desultory warfare transformed his paternal house in the country of the Marsi peace was made, and Frederic was acknowledged as king into a monastery, on which he bestowed all his property. of Trinacria in 1303, on condition of his paying to the He died in 615, and was buried in St. Peter's church. Roman see a tribute of 3000 onze, or 15,000 florins. A Boniface has been canonized by the church of Rome. He serious quarrel soon after broke out between the pope and was succeeded by Deusdedit, who was himself succeeded Philip le Bel. The pope pretended to share with the king in 619 by the tithes levied on the clergy; he also created the new bishoprick of Pamiers without the king's consent, and he appointed the bishop his legate in France. The bishop behaved insolently to the king, who arrested him and gave him in charge to the Archbishop of Narbonne. Upon this Boniface excommunicated the king, placed his kingdom under interdict, and wrote to Albert of Austria, confirming his election and inviting him to make war against France. Philip assembled the states of the kingdom and laid before them twenty-nine charges against the pope, accusing him of simony, of heresy, of licentiousness, and even of sorcery, and appealing to a general council of the church. Some of the charges were either invented or exaggerated by Philip, who was a most unprincipled man, although at the same time Boniface's conduct was far from irreproachable. The next measure of the pope was to proclaim all Philip's subjects released from their allegiance. The king resolving to put an end to this to him dangerous struggle, sent Guillaume de Nogaret, a bold unscrupulous man, to Italy, with money and letters for the partizans of the Colonna and the other enemies of the pope. Nogaret was joined by Sciarra, who had escaped from captivity. The pope was at Anagni, when Nogaret and Sciarra suddenly entered the town followed by armed men, overcame the pope's guards, and arrested Boniface himself. Nogaret was for taking him to Lyons, where the council was to assemble; but Sciarra insisted upon Boniface abdicating, abused him, and even struck the old man with his gauntlet. Boniface behaved with dignity and firmness; he was kept three days in confinement, during which it is said he would not take any food. At last Cardinal del Fiesco induced the people of Anagni to rise and deliver the pontiff, and Sciarra and Nogaret were obliged to leave the town. Boniface returned to Rome, but his health had received so severe a shock, that he fell ill and died, October, 1303, after about nine years of a most turbulent pontificate. P. Dupuy and A. Baillet have written the history of the quarrel between Boniface and Philip le Bel. Boniface was one of the most strenuous assertors of the assumed supremacy of the pope over princes and nations in temporal as well as spiritual matters. He was an inveterate persecutor of the Guibelines, for which Dante has alluded to him at length in canto xxvii. of the Inferno.'

pope.

BONIFACE VIII., Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani of Anagni, succeeded in January, 1294, Celestine V., whom he had persuaded to abdicate on the ground of incapacity, and whom he afterwards confined in the castle of Fumone, where Celestine died a few months after, under suspicious circumstances. Boniface interposed between Charles II. of Anjou, king of Naples, and James of Aragon and of Sicily, and made the latter consent to give up Sicily to Charles. But the Sicilians would not be surrendered to their hereditary enemy; they proclaimed Frederic, James's brother, their king, and resisted both the arms of Charles and the intrigues and the threats of Boniface, who launched his excommunications against them without effect. In 1297 James of Aragon came to Rome and was induced by Boniface to turn his arms against his brother Frederic, on which condition the pope granted him the investiture of the crown of Sardinia.

In the contest about the succession to the German empire, after the death of Rudolf of Hapsburg, Boniface took the part of Adolf of Nassau against Albert of Austria, Rudolf's son. At the same time Boniface waged a war of destruction against the Colonna, a powerful feudal family, which held possession of several towns and estates in the countries of Rome and Naples. The origin of this quarrel is not clearly ascertained. It appears that two cardinals of the house of Colonna had opposed Boniface's election, and afterwards refused to admit papal garrisons into their castles. Boniface accused them of having dissipated the treasures of the church, of holding correspondence with Frederic of Sicily, and other charges. The two cardinals wrote to the French and other kings against Boniface, complaining of his arrogance, and questioning the validity of his election. Upon this the pope excommunicated the whole family of Colonna and their adherents, calling them heretics, and declaring that they had forfeited their honours and estates

BONIFACE IX., Cardinal Pietro Tomacelli, a Neapolitan by birth, was elected in 1389 by the cardinals at Rome after the death of Urban VI. This was the time of the great Western schism as it is called, which began between Urban and Clement, styled the VIIth, who held his court at Avignon. Clement having died in 1394, the cardinals of his party elected Pedro de Luna by the name of Benedict XIII. Boniface however continued to exercise the papal authority at Rome, regardless of the Avignon popes and conclaves. Endeavours were made by several