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a. Body triply divided.

GENUS POLYCLINUM (Savigny).

Of this section the violet Botryllus (Botryllus violaceus) is an example.

b. Body entire; disposition in many concentric circles. GENUS POLYCYCLUS (Lamarck).

with fifty or a hundred eggs, and then having exhausted herself, she slowly flies away, or drops at once and dies. hundreds of these minute eggs will be found about its legs If a horse at grass is carefully examined in August, some and the back part of the shoulder, and few or none out of the reach of his tongue. In two or three days these eggs are sufficiently matured to be hatched. Possibly the horse

a, a group of Botryllus stellatus upon Ascidia intestinalis b, a disk magnified,

BOTRYOLITE. [DATHOLITE.] BOTRY'TIS, one of the obscure parasitical genera of fungi, to which what is called mildew is often attributable. The plants consist of little cells adhering end to end; of these a part lies prostrate on the surface of the plant that bears them, the other rises erect from the surface and bears a collection of roundish seed-cases at the extremity. From the spores contained in these cases the plants are propagated, and seeing that their size is so microscopic in all cases as to escape our vision unaided by glasses, and that what seems to the naked eye a thin brownish white patch upon a leaf is in reality a dense forest of such plants, their power of dissemination must be very great. They attack the fibres of vegetable fabrics, such as linen and cotton when placed in damp places, and the decayed stems of various plants, decaying apples, pears, grapes, &c. &c. They are always superficial and never intestinal.

BOTS are the larvæ or caterpillars of the gad-fly, belonging to the order Diptera and the genus Estrus, and distinguished by this peculiarity, that they pass the larval state of their existence within some living animal, and feed on the juices or substance of that animal. There are numerous species of them. Every quadruped on which they prey has its peculiar fly. The notice of a few of those most commonly known will suffice.

The Estrus equi, or gad-fly of the horse, belongs to the species (the genus of some entomologists) Gasterophilus, so called from its larvæ inhabiting the stomach of that animal. It is distinguished from the other Estri by the smoothness of the thorax, and by the eyes in both sexes being equidistant from each other, not quite half an inch in length, with gauze-like yellow and brown wings, its chest of a rusty colour approaching to a brown hue on the sides and with a yellow tinge posteriorly, its belly of a reddish brown superiorly and a dirty grey beneath, with its extremity almost black; the whole insect is thickly covered with down. The gad-fly is seen in the latter part of the summer very busy about horses: this is the impregnated female depositing her eggs. She approaches the horse, selects some part which he can reach with his tongue, and which he is in the frequent habit of licking; she balances herself for a moment, and then, suddenly darting down, deposits an egg on one of the hairs, which adheres by a glutinous substance that surrounds it. She continues her labour with wonderful perseverance until she has parted

sticking about and stiffening the hair, and he licks the part, and by the pressure of the tongue, and the mingled influence of the warmth and moisture of it, the ova are burst, and a small worm escapes from each. It clings to the tongue, and is thus conveyed into the mouth; thence it is either carried with the food into the stomach, or, impelled by instinct, it travels down the gullet, being of too tiny size to inconvenience or annoy the horse. Thus it reaches the stomach, and, by means of a hook on each side of its mouth, affixes itself to the cuticular or insensible coat of that viscus. It scoops out a little hole, into which its muzzle is plunged, and there it remains until the early part of the summer of the following year, feeding on the mucous or other matter which the coats of the stomach afford. It has now become an inch in length and of corresponding bulk, and ready to undergo its change of form. It detaches itself from the cuticular coat to which it had adhered, and plunges into the food which the other and digestive portion of the stomach contains; it passes with the food through the whole length of the intestines, and is discharged with the dung. Sometimes it is not perfectly enveloped in the fecal mass; it then clings to the sides of the anus, and hangs there firmly until there is a soft place beneath on which it may drop; it then hastens to burrow into the earth, and, if it has escaped the birds that are eagerly watching for it, it has no sooner hollowed for itself a convenient habitation than a shelly covering is formed around it, and it appears in the state of a pupa or chrysalis.

It here lies torpid for a few weeks preparing to undergo its last change. It assumes the form of a perfect fly; it then bursts from its prison, rises in the air, and seeks its mate. The work of fecundation being accomplished, the male immediately dies: the female lingers a day or two in order to find the proper deposit for her eggs, and her short life also terminates.

It is in the larva or caterpillar state that the bot is most known. The stomach of the horse sometimes contains an almost incredible number of them, the cuticular portion of that organ being in a manner covered with them. In a few instances they have been decidedly injurious; having mistaken the upper part of the windpipe for their residence, and, fastening themselves on the edges of the opening into it, have produced a cough which no medicine could alleviate, and which increased with the growth of the bot, until a degree of irritation was excited under which the animal sunk. They have also travelled farther than the stomach, and have irritated and choked the first intestine, and thus destroyed the horse; and, even in their natural habitation, under probably some diseased state of the stomach arising from other causes, they have perforated it and caused death.

These however are rare occurrences; they are exceptions to a general rule. The plain matter of fact is, that a horse that has been turned out in July and August, and therefore almost necessarily has bots, enjoys just as good health as another that has been stabled during this period. He is in as good condition, and as fully capable of work when the cuticular coat is crowded with full-formed bots as he is at any other time; and his health is unaffected when they are passing through the intestines to seek a new habitation.

Some persons have maintained that their presence in the stomach is beneficial. It has been said that, by their constant action on it, in the suction of their food, they rouse it to the full exercise of its digestive powers. It was forgotten however that their habitation is not the digestive portion of the stomach. They have been said to assist, by the hard and irregular surface which they present, in the trituration of the food; but the function discharged by the portion of the stomach on which they are found is simply one of maceration. There is no necessity for supposing that their presence is beneficial to the horse. The truth is, these insects find here a secure and comfortable abode during their larval state, without, generally speaking, producing any other inconvenience to the horse than the temporary irritation which they occasionally excite when making their escape.

The horse-owner therefore will care very little about them. He will remove them when they are hanging around the anus; but he will never have recourse to physic on their account, because it is rare indeed that they do any harm, and, if they did, their muzzles are buried so deeply in the cuticular coat that no medicine that is safe to administer can possibly have any effect upon them.

A smaller species of bot, called from its colour the redbot, is occasionally found in the stomach; but the fly from which it proceeds has never been accurately described. There is no ground for the assertion that the red-bot is more injurious than the common bot.

A third species, the Estrus hemorrhoidalis, or fundament-bot, is better known. The fly is considerably smaller than the common Estrus equi; it is of a brown colour, with the extremity of the body rounded and yellow, and the mouth is furnished with exceedingly sharp pincers. This fly may be seen darting between the thighs of the horse and around its croup, and following the motions of the tail until the animal is preparing to dung. During the evacuation of the dung, and the subsequent protrusion of the intestine, it darts upon and tears the gut with its pincers, and deposits an egg in every wound. The horse does not seem to suffer any pain during this operation, for he stands passive; and the little worm, soon produced from the egg, establishes its abode in the place in which it was deposited. It likewise remains its stated time in the intestine, and escapes at the same time that the common bot does from the stomach. These bots are often seen within the verge of the anus, and occasionally seem to be productive of a slight degree of irritation. They are smaller than the common bot, and distinguished from the red-bot by their colour. An injection of linseed-oil will generally dislodge them.*

The Estrus ovis, or Estrus of the sheep, is a more formidable insect. It is smaller than the Estrus of the horse: its body is of a dark-brown colour, spotted with white, the white sometimes so much prevailing as to give a greyish hue to the fly. It may often be seen in copses, and particularly on rails in the neighbourhood of a copse. Every shepherd ought to make himself acquainted with it, for it may then be easily crushed and destroyed. It prevails most in June and July, and is sometimes an intolerable nuisance in woody countries. If only one of them appears the whole flock is struck with terror; and if there is any place in the field devoid of pasture the sheep crowd to it, turning their heads towards the centre of the group, with their muzzles to the sand, and their feet in continual motion in order to secure themselves from the attack of their foe. The Estrus endeavours to get at the inner margin of the nostril, and, darting upon it with the quickness of lightning, deposits her egg. The warmth and moisture of the part speedily hatch it, and the little worm escapes. It crawls up the nostril, it threads all the sinuosities of the passage, and finds its way to some of the sinuses connected with the nose. The irritation which it occasions as it travels up the nose seems to be exceedingly great. The poor animal gallops furiously about, snorting violently, and almost maddened by the annoyance. length the worm reaches some of the convolutions of the turbinated bones of the nose, or the antrum or cavity of the upper jaw, or the frontal sinuses, it fastens itelf on the membrane by the two hooks with which, like the others, it is provided, and there it remains until April or May in the succeeding year.

At

There are seldom more than three or four of these bots in each sheep; and when they have reached their appointed home, like the bots in the stomach of the horse, they are harmless. Some strange but groundless stories have been told of gleet from the nose, giddiness, and inflammation of the brain having been produced by them.

The larva or bot remains in the sinus until it has fully grown. It then detaches itself from the membrane, creeps out the same way by which it entered, and again sadly annoys the animal for a little while, the sheep making the most violent efforts to sneeze it out. At length the grub being dropped, burrows in the earth, becomes an oval and motionless chrysalis, and, six weeks or two months afterwards it breaks from its prison a perfect fly. The work of propagation being effected, the male, like that of the Estrus equi, dies; the female lingers on a little while

Both the red-bot and the hemorrhoidalis belong to the species gasterophilus; and to the larvae of these three the term bot has been by many authors restricted: but as the larvae of all the cestri pass this portion of their existence within some living animal, it seems natural to extend the term to them all.

until she has safely deposited her ova; she takes no food, for she has no organs to receive or digest it; she accomplishes her task and expires.

The Estrus bovis, or gad-fly of the ox, is larger than either of the others. Its chest is dark-brown, with a yellow patch on the back, and the rounded abdomen has alternate rings of a brown and orange colour. The fatty and cellular substance beneath the skin of the ox is the residence of its larvæ. The fly almost uniformly selects a young beast in good condition, and alighting on the back, a little on one side of the spine, it punctures the skin and drops one of its eggs into the perforation, and with it, probably, some acrid fluid which causes temporary but intense pain. The ox darts away, and runs bellowing over the field with his head protruded and his tail extended. His companions, smarting from the same pain, or dreading a similar attack, also gallop wildly in every direction, hastening, if it be in their power, to some pond or stream, where their enemy is afraid to follow them*. A small tumour, a warble, presently appears on the back, which being carefully examined is found to contain a little white worm. This worm grows and assumes a darker colour, and becomes a perfect bot; and there it remains, abundantly nourished by the fatty matter around it, until the following June, when it begins to eat its way through the wall of its cell. Many a bird, aware from the uneasiness of the beast of what is going forward, is ready to seize the bot as it is forcing itself through the aperture which it has made; and the cattle too, instinctively crowd to the water in order that the intruder may fall into the stream and thus be lost. In one of these ways the great majority of the larva perish; but a few reach the ground, speedily burrow into it, pass through their chrysaline state, and re-appear in August in their last and perfect form. They also immediately set to work to secure the perpetuation of their species, regardless of the annoyance to the animals within whose frame they find a refuge.

1. The female of the Estrus equi nearly double its natural size. 2. The eggs, also magnified, deposited on and adhering to the hair. 3. The bots-one-half of their natural size-adhering by their tentacula, or hooked mouths, to the cuticular portion of the stomach. Some of them are supposed to be recently detached, and the excavations which they had made

in the cuticular coat are seen.

4 The full-grown bot detached.

5. The Estrus ovis, or gad-fly of the sheep.

The farmer does not pay the attention which he ought to these warbles. It is true that the cattle, when the tumour has once formed, do not appear to suffer any inconvenience from its existence; and the farmer is accustomed to associate with the appearance of a few warbles the certainty of the thriving condition of the beasts; but he forgets the pain and terror which the animal has already suffered, and that which he has yet to undergo; and he also forgets the deterioration of the hide. The hole made by the bot in his escape will apparently close, but not until after a considerable period has elapsed, and never with a substance so firm and durable as the first. It is easy to destroy the creature in its cell. The pressure of the finger and thumb will effect it, and while the beast will escape considerable annoyance, the hide will not be damaged.

The goat and the different species of deer, and, in fact,

It is probably this fly, or some one like it, that Virgil (Georgic. iil.146) describes as driving the cattle mad in the south of Italy,

almost all animals, have their peculiar tormentors, but the distinctions and habits of these varieties of the Estrus are not well known.

BOTTA'RI, GIOVANNI, was born at Florence in 1689, studied Latin and belles lettres under the learned Biscioni, and Greek under Salvini, and afterwards philosophy, mathematics, and theology, in which last he took his doctor's degree in 1716 in the University of Florence. The Academy of La Crusca made him one of its members, and entrusted him with the task of preparing a new edition of its great vocabulary, in company with Andrea Alamanni, and Rosso Martini. This laborious work lasted several years, and the new edition was published in 1738, in 6 vols. fol. Bottari was also made superintendent of the grand ducal printing establishment at Florence, where he published new editions of several Tuscan writers with notes and comments, such as Varchi's Ercolano, the works of Sacchetti, of Frà Guitton d'Arezzo, &c. In 1729, he wrote Lezioni tré Sopra il tremuoto on the occasion of an earthquake which occurred at Florence in that year. In 1730 he went to Rome, where he fixed his residence. Clement XII. gave him a canonry, and also the chair of ecclesiastical history in the University of La Sapienza, and employed him in 1732 together with Eustachio Manfredi, on a survey of the Tiber throughout Umbria, in order to ascertain whether it could be rendered navigable. The result of this survey was published: Relazione della visita del fiume Tevere da Ponte Nuovo sotto Perugia fino alla foce della Nera.' Bottari made a similar survey of the Teverone. His next publication was a learned work on the monuments found in the numerous and vast subterraneous vaults near Rome, commonly known by the name of catacombs: Sculture e pitture sacre estratte dai cimiterj di Roma, pubblicate già dagli autori della Roma Sotterranea, ed ora nuovamente date in luce colla spiegazione ed indici,' 3 vol. fol. Rome, 1737-54. He used the plates of the Roma Sotterranea of Bosio, which Clement XII. had purchased; but the letter-press may be said to be entirely Bottari's. He also published Storia dei SS. Barlaam e Giosafatte ridotta alla sua antica puritá di favella coll'ajuto degli antichi testi a penna con prefazione,' 4to. 1734. Clement XII. being pleased with his exertions, bestowed on him several preferments, made him a prelate of the Pontifical Court, and librarian of the Vatican. Benedict XIV., who succeeded Clement in 1740, made Bottari take up his abode near him in the Pontifical Palace. 'Here I am,' Bottari wrote soon after to a friend at Brescia, 'because his Holiness would have it so, and here I shall remain, without however expecting or demanding, wishing or deserving any further promotion, which would not be of any use either for my body or my soul.' And in fact he rose no farther in the career of ecclesiastical dignities. He published, in 1741, Del Museo Capitolino, tomo i. contenente le imagini d'uomini illustri, fol.; and afterwards 'Musei Capitolini tomus secundus, Augustorum et Augustarum hermas continens, cum Observationibus,' fol. 1750. Also Antiquissimi Virgiliani Codicis fragmenta et picturæ ex Vaticana Bibliotheca ad priscas imaginum formas a Petro S. Bartoli incise,' 1741, fol. Bottari contributed to this work an important preface, with a disquisition on the age of two MSS. of Virgil in the Vatican, and notes, variantes, &c. Descrizione del palazzo Apostolico Vaticano, opera postuma di Agostino Taja, rivista e accresciuta Roma, 1750.' Taja had begun this work, which Bottari recast and completed. Bottari died at Rome in June 1775, at the age of 86. He was one of the most distinguished scholars at the Roman Court in the 18th century. Among his minor works are, Dissertations on the origin of the invention of Dante's poem; two Lectures upon Boccaccio, in which Bottari refutes the charge of infidelity brought against that writer; two Lectures on Livy, defending the Roman historian against the charge of too great credulity in narrating prodigies; Letters on the fine arts, Dialogues on the same subject, &c. (Grazzini elogio di Monsignor Bottari; Mazzuchelli Scrittori d'Italia.)

BOTTLES, GLASS, in common with other descriptions of glass wares, were first subjected to a duty by the 6 and 7 Will. and Mary, but the duty then imposed, after undergoing various modifications, was repealed four years after, by an act, the preamble of which recited that it was found by experience that the duties on glass and glass-wares are very vexatious and troublesome in the levying and collecting the same, and of small advantage to the Crown, and should the same be continued would lessen the duty on coals much

more than the said duties on glass-ware would amount to, would hinder the employing great numbers of poor, and endanger the loss of so beneficial a manufacture to this kingdom. The experience thus recorded did not however prevent recourse being had to glass as a means for raising revenue, and in 1746 various rates of duties were imposed upon the materials used for making different kinds of glass in Great Britain, and among the rest 28. 4d. per cwt. upon the materials of which common bottles were made; in 1778 this rate was increased to 3s. 6d. per cwt.; in the following year it was made 3s. 8d.; in 1781 the rate was advanced to 3s. 10d.; and in 1787 to 4s. 04d., at which it continued until 1804, when it was made 4s. 1d. In 1813, the duties upon glass, generally, were doubled, and the rate upon bottles became 88. 2d. per cwt.; at which it remained until 1828, when it was reduced to 7s., and at this rate it has since continued. Until the year 1826, Ireland enjoyed an exemption from duty upon all kinds of glass made at home, with the exception of common bottles, upon which a duty of 18. 34d. per cwt. was imposed in 1797; this rate was continued until 1828, when it was advanced to 7s. per cwt. the rate payable in Great Britain, and no alteration has since been made.

At the time the duty on glass bottles was doubled (1813), a tax of 2s. 6d. per cwt. on stone bottles was imposed at the instance of the makers of glass bottles, who feared that the advanced cost of their own manufacture would give an advantage to the makers of stone bottles. This rate was doubled in 1817. This duty on stone bottles never produced much beyond 30007. per annum on the gross receipt, and it was repealed in 1834.

The quantity of bottle glass made in Great Britain, upon which excise duties were paid at different periods from 1790, are as follows:

1833...

1832......109,298.....53,765... .55,533 ...113,120.....55,724.. .57,396 1834......102,406.....52,456.....49,950 The whole duty is drawn back on exportation. The manufacture is treated of under GLASS. BOTTOM HEAT, a term in horticulture expressive of an artificial temperature communicated by means of fermenting vegetable matter to the soil in which plants grow. It is usually obtained either by leaves, or tan, or fresh stable-litter thrown into a heap, and enclosed within the walls of a brick pit, the surface of which is covered with soil. The object of the cultivator is by such means to prevent the temperature of the soil from becoming less than 600 Fahr. or more than 90°. The plants to which this kind of temperature is applied are pine-apples, melons, cucumbers, &c., and certain tropical plants cultivated in stoves.

It is probable that this operation took its rise at a time when it was extremely difficult to procure an equable temperature of the atmosphere by other means; and when, if the heat of smoke in flues was employed, it had the effect of drying the air in which plants were cultivated till it was unfit for their respiration. Fermenting matter, the tempe rature of which was prolonged and steady, had in addition the great but hardly appreciated convenience, of keeping the air also gently moistened; and in this the greatest advantage was found to result. Physiologists tell us that although plants may not derive much direct advantage from atmospheric moisture, inasmuch as the principal part of the water of vegetation is derived from the soil, yet they are exceedingly benefited by the presence of a certain quantity of vapour in the circumambient air, because it prevents a too rapid evaporation from the leaves.

By modern improvements it has been found practicable to maintain the atmosphere of a hothouse in any required state of humidity or temperature; and when steam or hot water are made use of, this may be carried to a great nicety, and the means of doing this are within the reach of most gardeners. One would therefore have thought that the system of bottom heat would be abandoned. So far however

is this from being the case that it is just as much employed as ever, and in combination with these additional powers, which were originally intended to supersede it. Such is the nature of prejudice, and such the inevitable consequence of blind practice unassisted by science. In procuring this bottom heat large sums are annually expended, without the smallest return. All that bottom heating can possibly do is better done by ordinary heating apparatus, and the cost of the bottom heat is altogether thrown away.

It is an axiom in horticulture that the more closely we approach nature in our management of plants the more certain are we to succeed in our attempts at cultivation. It therefore becomes an important question whether bottom heat has any existence in nature; of course it can only be looked for in equinoctial climates. Now the data that we possess upon this subject, although not very precise, are sufficient to enable us to answer in the negative. The water vines of the woods of Africa and India abound in a fluid which is much cooler than that of the atmosphere; its coolness is owing to that of the soil from which it is rapidly attracted; there can be no bottom heat in such cases. The most vigorous vegetation of the tropics is in woods where the soil is shaded from the direct action of the solar rays; we cannot suppose that bottom heat has any existence there. On the contrary when any such temperature as that which we artificially create is really met with, as on the shores of the north coast of New Holland, or in the naked plains of Peru, where it has been noticed by M. Boussingault, the effects of it are so prejudicial that vegetation can scarcely struggle against it.

Again, looking to practice, we find that the melons of Cashmere derive their nourishment from the cold waters of lakes; that in Persia, and even in Spain, the earth in which the roots of such plants feed is perpetually cooled by the evaporation of the water by which the soil is irrigated; and that even in this country the finest crops of pine-apples have been obtained in cases where the practice of giving bottom heat has been neglected (Horticultural Transactions, vol. i. n.ser. p. 388); and it is perfectly certain from experiments hitherto unrecorded that in other cases it is equally unnecessary. All that is required is to maintain the air in a proper state of warmth and humidity; this done the earth must of necessity partake in the temperature, and any effect of bottom heat that is desirable is gained. It is therefore to be recommended that the whole system of bottom heat be done away with where other modes of regulating temperature exist.

BOTTOMRY, BOTTOMREE, or BUMMAREE, is a term derived into the English maritime law from the Dutch or Low German. In Dutch the term is Bomerie or Bodemery, and in German Bodmerei. It is said to be originally derived from Boden or Bodem, which in Low German and Dutch formerly signified the bottom or keel of a ship; and according to a common process in language, the part being applied to the whole, also denoted the ship itself. The same word, differently spelt, has been used in a similar manner in the English language; the expression bottom having been commonly used to signify a ship, previously to the seventeenth century, and being at the present day well known in that sense as a mercantile phrase. Thus it is a familiar mode of expression among merchants to speak of shipping goods in foreign bottoms.'

The contract of bottomry in maritime law, is a pledge of the ship as a security for the repayment of money advanced to an owner or master, for the purpose of enabling him to carry on the voyage. It is understood in this contract, which is usually expressed in the form of a bond, called a Bottomry Bond, that if the ship be lost on the voyage, the lender loses the whole of his money; but if the ship and tackle reach the destined port, they become immediately liable, as well as the person of the borrower, for the money lent, and also the premium or interest stipulated to be paid upon the loan. No objection can be made on the ground of usury, though the stipulated premium exceeds the legal rate of interest, because the lender is liable to the casualties of the voyage, and is not to receive his money again at all events. In France the contract of bottomry is called Contrat à la grosse, and in Italy Cambio maritimo, and is subject to different regulations by the respective maritime laws of those countries. By the Germans it is termed Bodmerei, and is different in many of its incidents from Bottomry in this country.

In taking up money uvon Bottomry, the loan is made

upon the security of the ship alone; but when the advance is made upon the lading, then the borrower is said to take up money at respondentia. In this distinction as to the subject matter of the security, consists the only difference between Bottomry and Respondentia; the rules of English maritime law being equally applicable to both.

The practice of lending money on ships was common in Athens, and in other Greek commercial towns. Money thus lent was sometimes called (vavrikà xpýμara) ship-money. Demosthenes (I. Against Aphobus), in making a statement of the property left him by his father, enumerates seventy mine lent on bottomry. If the ship and cargo were lost, the lender could not recover his principal or interest; which stipulation was often expressly made in the (ovyypaph) bond. (Demosthenes against Phormion, and against Dionysodorus, c. 6. 10.) The nature of the bottomry contract is shown in the Oration of Demosthenes against Dionysodorus: 3000 drachmæ were lent on a ship, on condition of her sailing to Egypt and returning to Athens; the money was lent on the double voyage, and the borrower contracted in writing to return direct to Athens, and not dispose of his cargo of Egyptian grain at any other place. He violated his contract by selling his cargo at Rhodes, having been advised by his partner at Athens that the price of grain had fallen in that city since the departure of the vessel. The plaintiff sought to recover principal and interest, of which the borrower attempted to defraud him: damages also were claimed, conformably to the terms of the bond. As neither principal nor interest could be demanded if the vessel were lost, it was a common plea on the part of the borrower that the ship was wrecked.

Money was also lent, under the name of pecunia trajecticia, on ships among the Romans, and regulated by various legal provisions. The rate of interest was not limited by law, as in the case of other loans, for the lender ran the risk of losing all if the ship was wrecked; but this extraordinary rate of interest was only due while the vessel was actually_at_sea. (Dig. 32, tit. 2. De Nautico Fonere; Molloy, De Jure Maritimo, lib. ii. c. 11; Parke on Insurance, chap. xxi; Benecke's System des Assecuranz und Bodmereiwesens, bá. 4.)

BOTZEN, CIRCLE OF, is one of the 7 circles or administrative divisions into which the government of Tyrol is divided. It is also called the circle of the Etsch (Adige) from the river of that name which runs through it, first in a S. direction from its source to Glurens, then E. as far as Meran, where it bends to the S.E. as far as the confluence of the Eisack near Botzen, from whence the united stream flows direct S. towards Trent. The valley of the Etsch from Glurens to the confluence of the Eisack, a length of about 45 m., forms the principal part of the circle of Botzen. From Glurens to Meran it bears the name of the Vinschgau, and is a fine alpine district, rich in pasture and also in fruit trees. Meran is a small town with old walls and towers, and was formerly the capital of the original courty of Tyrol, which was much smaller in extent than the present Tyrol. The castle of the former counts rises on a hill about 3 m. from Meran. N. of Meran is a tranverse valley opening into the great valley of the Etsch, which is called the Passeyrthal, and is known in contemporary history as the native district of Andreas Hofer, the Tyrolese chief, who fought against the French and Bavarians united in 1809, and was taken and shot at Mantua in 1810. Hofer's house is to be seen in the Passeyrthal, about 10 m. N. of Meran. The Etsch above Meran forms a continuation of falls or rapids for the space of 1 m., which have a very striking effect. Below Meran, towards Botzen, the valley becomes wider, and Botzen itself is in a kind of plain formed by the meeting of several valleys. This part of the country produces good wine and fruit in abundance. The system of irrigating the fields by means of small canals and locks is established here as well as in other valleys of the Alps. The circle of Botzen is bounded on the E. by the circle of Pustherthal or Eisack; on the S. by that of Trent; on the N. by that of the Oberinnthal, from which it is divided by the chain of the Rhætian Alps; and on the W. by the Valtelina and by the Munsterthal in the Grisons, being divided from the former by the Stilfser Joch and the Ortler, and from the latter by the Wormser Joch and the high ridge called Surras. The pop. of the circle is 104,000 inh. The towns, besides Botzen, are Meran and Glurens, each with a pop. of between 2000 and 3000 inh., and many large villages. The language of the people is German, though at Botzen

and in the neighbourhood a dialect of the Italian is spoken | almost universally. In the upper part of the valley, about Meran, the primitive simplicity of the Tyrolese manners still prevails. (Voyage Pittoresque dans le Tyrol, et dans une partie de la Bavière, par le Comte de Bray; Inglis's Tyrol; Malte Brun's Geography.)

BOʻTZEN, in Italian Bolzáno, the chief t. of the circle of the Etsch, in the principality of Tyrol. It is situated in a pleasant valley, sheltered from the N. winds, on the riv. Eisack, an affluent of the Etsch or Adige, and just above the confluence of the two rivers. The traveller coming from Iunsbruck, after having passed the ridge of the Brenner and the t. of Brixen, finds at Botzen the climate and the productions of Italy. Even the habits and the language of the people are in a great measure Italian, although German is also commonly spoken. This part of Tyrol, S. of Mount Brenner, is commonly called the Italian Tyrol, and it communicates with the plains of Lombardy by the valley of the Adige.

Botzen is a neatly built t. of near 8000 inh., and is known chiefly for its fairs, which are frequented by commercial travellers from all parts of Italy and Germany. The country near Botzen produces wine and fruits in abundance. Botzen is on the high road from Italy by Roveredo and Trento to Innsbruck, which was the only communication between the Tyrol and Lombardy, before the opening of the new road over the Stilfser Joch. [BORMIO.] A cross road strikes off from Botzen to the W., ascends the valley of the upper Etsch by Meran, and meets the new road at Mäls near Glurens. From this place, the traveller coming from Italy by the Stilfser Joch can go to Innsbruck, either by Botzen and the pass of the Brenner, or proceed from Mäls up to the sources of the Etsch and then descend by Nauders into the valley of the Inn which he then follows to Innsbruck, meeting at Landeck the high road leading from Switzerland into the Tyrol. Botzen is 32 miles N. by E. of Trento.

BOUCHAIN, a t. in France, dep. of Nord, of no great importance except from its fortifications, and from some historical interest attached to it. It is on the Escaut or Scheld, and on the road between Cambray and Valenciennes, about 10 m. from each, and 115 m. N.N.E. from Paris; 50° 17' N. lat., and 3° 17′ E. lon.

In 1711 the Duke of Marlborough invested Bouchain, having, by the most skilful manoeuvring, passed without bloodshed the strong lines with which Maréchal Villars had covered the French frontier in this quarter. The French commander had boasted of these lines as impregnable, saying that he had brought Marlborough to his ne plus ultra. The siege of the town was a work of considerable difficulty, for the neighbouring country was partly laid under water; a French army superior in force to that of the allies, and commanded by a general of the greatest ability, watched every opportunity for interrupting the siege; and the town itself was secured by a strong garrison. But the skill of Marlborough triumphed over all difficulties, and the garrison was forced to capitulate in sight of the French army, which could not relieve the place. This exploit closed the campaign, and with it the long and brilliant successes of the English general. Bouchain was re-taken in 1712 by Maréchal Villars, and the possession of the town secured to France by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, which were concluded shortly after.

Bouchain consists of two parts, the upper town and the lower town, which are separated from each other by ditches, filled from the Scheld and the Senset, which also fill the broad deep ditches which surround the fortifications. The parish church and the town-hall are in the upper town. The population is given in the Dictionnaire Universel de la France (Paris, 1804) at 1128: we have no later authority. (Coxe's Life of the Duke of Marlborough.)

BOUCHER, REV. JONATHAN, born 1737, died 1804, a divine, a political writer, a general scholar, and an English philologist of the last century, to whose memory justice has hitherto been imperfectly rendered.

inhabiting such houses that there is an uncle, a brother, or a son who is a schoolmaster in some distant county, or perhaps who is in the church; and the number is not small of persons of this Cumbrian origin who have attained a well-deserved eminence.

Boucher was trained first at a school at Blencogo, and afterwards at Wigton in grammar learning. At Wigton he had for his master, the clergyman of Graystock, Mr. Blaine, with whom he read some of the higher Latin and Greek classics. Mr. Blaine is described by one who was acquainted with him, as a man of true piety and learning, but affecting the rusticity which prevailed in the farmers around him, instead of endeavouring by a better example to show them how all the virtues they possessed might be exhibited in union with the decencies and proprieties of life.' It is added, 'he spoke in the tone and dialect of his rustic countrymen, and took particular care that its Doric strength should not be debilitated by the introduction of courtly phrases.'

Under this master Boucher pursued his studies with great assiduity, and at the age of seventeen or eighteen he entered on the business of school-instruction. A gentleman residing at Wigton placed his children under his care; but in a little time he became an usher in the grammar-school at Saint Bees, which at that time, about 1756, enjoyed a high reputation under Dr. James, a good and learned master. While here, the instruction of youth in the rudiments of classical knowledge was his business; the perusal and study of the great writers, and especially of the great poets of antiquity, his recreation. He is said to have here executed a translation of Tyrtæus.

About the year 1756 or 1757, as we may collect from circumstances, when he was about nineteen or twenty years of age, he left England, and took up his residence amongst the American colonists.

Such a man could not but be a valuable acquisition to any colony. His services were soon engaged by a gentleman in Virginia of wealth and respectability, as tutor to his children. That power which natural talent, attainment and character united, never fail to give, where the natural tendency is not counteracted by some one of the various forms in which an over-estimate of them by the party himself appears, was soon manifested. It was perceived that while he could make boys learned, he had the ability also to instruct men and make them better. The vestry of the parish of Hanover in the county of King George, Virginia, nominated him to the rectory of that parish in 1761, when he was only four-and-twenty. This nomination he accepted, and instantly repaired to England, where he received ordination from the Bishop of London both as deacon and priest on the same day. After visiting his native county, he returned to take upon himself his new charge.

From this time to 1775 he continued in an assiduous discharge of his ministerial duties, and in endeavours to improve as far as was in his power, the moral and intellectual state of the parts of America in which he was placed. He removed from the parish of Hanover to that of Saint Mary in Caroline county, Virginia, lying on the Rappahanock. When Sir Robert Eden became governor of Maryland, he appointed Mr. Boucher to the rectory of Saint Anne's in Annapolis, and afterwards of Queen Anne's in Prince George's county, where he was living in 1775, when there was a violent and sudden change in his affairs. These fourteen years were a critical period in the history of the American colonies. Mr. Boucher has afforded us the means of judging with tolerable accuracy how his talents, station, and character, were made to bear upon the feeling and action of the people with whose interests he had connected his own. Many years after, he published a volume of discourses which he had delivered from the pulpit at various times during those years. Most of them were printed at the time when they were delivered. They are better entitled discourses than sermons. They are in fact for the most part political sermons, preached however usually on public occasions, when it is allowed to the ministers of

struction. They exhibit a robust sense, a mind stored with classical erudition, and there are occasionally bursts of a simple eloquence. The first is on the peace of 1763, intended to rebuke and check the spirit of a love of arms, Another contends for a liberal toleration to dissenters and papists. In his discourse on the education suitable to the American colonists which he wrote in 1773, at the request