motion of the earth and Ptolemaic as to the diurnal motion, Bouillaud imagined that the laws of the planetary motions could be entirely deduced from geometrical reasoning. He blames Kepler for attending to any other method of determining a law. But still he had the good fortune to make a guess, which, had he been Newton, would not have lain idle in his hands. He asserts, in opposition to Kepler, that the law of the attracting force of the sun, if such a thing be, cannot be inversely as the distances, but inversely as the square of the distances. He is thus the first who started this notion. He has certainly the advantage of Kepler in another point, when he asks why the sun only attracts the planets, and why the planets only resist motion, and do not produce it. As the first sentence in which the law was (though but as a supposition) announced, which has since been found to regulate the motions of all the planets, must be a curiosity, we shall give it at length from p. 23 of Astr. Phil. Virtus autem illa, quâ sol prehendit seu harpagat planetas, corporalis quæ ipsi pro manibus est, lineis rectis in omnem mundi amplitudinem emissa quasi species solis cum illius corpore rotatur: cum ergo sit corporalis, imminuitur, et extenuatur in majori spatio et interuallo, ratio autem hujus imminutionis eadem est, ac luminis, in ratione nempe dupla interuallorum, sed eversa. Hoc non negauit Keplerus, attamen virtutem motricem in simplâ tantum ratione interuallorum contendit imminui: &c. of Jerusalem, which city he took in 1099. To provide funds for his expedition, Godfrey sold the duchy to Albert, bishop of Liège, subject to the right of redemption on the part of the vendor or his immediate heirs. Godfrey having died in the Holy Land, this sale became the cause of dispute between his heirs and the bishop, each party having recourse to arms in support of their pretensions. After this petty war had been renewed at so many different times as to obtain for the duchy the name of 'The debateable land,' it remained for some time in the peaceable possession of the prince Bishop of Liège. The bishop having taken part in the war against France, Louis XIV. caused the town and castle of Bouillon to be seized in 1672, and at the congress of Nimeguen in 1678 stipulated that France should retain possession, until arbitrators to be appointed for the purpose should have decided between the claims for the duchy set up by the descendants of the heirs of Godfrey and the Bishop of Liège. In the meanwhile Louis had invested the family of La Tour d'Auvergne with the duchy. A descendant of that house, Philip d'Auvergne, a captain in the English navy, assumed in 1792 the title of Prince of Bouillon, which he continued to bear until his death in 1816. The long disputed territory was adjudged by the congress which met at Vienna in 1815, to belong to the king of the United Netherlands, in his quality of duke of Luxembourg: in the division of that duchy consequent upon the revolution of 1830, Bouillon fell to the share of Belgium. Bouillon is 45 m. W. from Luxembourg, and 6 m. N.N.E. from Sedan, the French frontier being about midway between Sedan and Bouillon. (Gautier's Voyageur dans les Pays-Bas; Kampen; Recueil, &c., par Van der Maelen.) BOUILLON, GODFREY (GODEFROY), DUKE OF, in the Ardennes, was the eldest son of Gustavus II., count of Boulogne, a descendant by the female line from Charlemagne, and of Ida, sister of Godfrey le Bossu, duke of Brabant, or Basse-Lorraine. The date of his birth is not given, but the marriage of his parents took place in December, 1059. In his youth, Godfrey bore the great standard of the empire in the service of Henry IV. At the battle of Merseberg, October 2, 1081, his sword sheared off the right hand of the Pretender Rodolph, who died on the following day in consequence of his wound; and Godfrey, whose distinguished bravery had been rewarded by the ducal title, was among the first who scaled the walls of Rome in the subsequent attack upon it. It is believed that remorse for the violation of the holy city of the west occasioned his vow of joining in the crusade which was to rescue the still more holy oriental metropolis. His celebrity in arms, his noble descent, and his general high reputation for both morals and valour, readily procured him the chief command of the projected expedition; and 80,000 foot and 10,000 horsemen were placed under his immediate orders by the confederates. His gathering was formed on the banks of the Meuse and of the Moselle, and thence he advanced through Germany, Bohemia, and Hungary. By discretion, and by fearlessly trusting himself to the good faith of Carloman, king of the lastnamed country, he removed the suspicions which had been tiousness of former pilgrims; and after a short delay, he was greatly assisted in his march upon the Saracens by an escort of Hungarian cavalry. In union with the other divisions of the Latin army under the towers of Constantinople, he was employed in dispelling the not unreasonable jealousy displayed by the Emperor Alexius; and afterwards, by the capture of Nicaea and by retrieving the battle of Dorylæum, he opened the passage through Asia Minor. Antioch next fell before his arms, but not until it had detained him many months and had occasioned fearful loss. Among the prodigies of valour (and the phrase, however common-place, may here be received in its literal sense) which the original historians of the crusades delight to record of their heroes, is an instance that Godfrey, on one occasion, during this siege, by a single stroke of his sword, split a Saracen from the left shoulder to the right haunch, and that the entire head and a moiety of the trunk of the Infidel fell upon the spot into the river Orontes, while the sitting half entered the town on horseback. In May, 1099, the crusaders advanced from Antioch and Laodicea to Jerusalem; but of their own mighty host scarcely 40,000 men remained alive, of whom one-half was unfit for combat. Godfrey, while pursuing the hazardous diversion of the chace during his march through Pisidia, had been torn by a wild boar, and so greatly was he injured in this rough encounter We shall also mention of Bouillaud his Opus novum ad Arithmeticam infinitorum, Paris, 1682, which is a continuation of the researches contained in the Arith. infin. of Wallis, but not applied to geometry: and also his Catalogus Bibliotheca Thuana, made by him in conjunction with James and Peter Dupuis (Puteanus), Paris, 1679. This is an ex-justly excited in that prince and his subjects by the licencellent representation of the state of a library of the time, and we shall have frequent occasion to quote it. (Biog. Univ., Life by Delambre, and Delambre Hist. Ast. Mod.) Among the tables of the Astronomia Philolaica are the Rudolphine catalogue of stars; the catalogue of southern stars furnished to Bayer by Americus Vespusius and others, sent to Kepler by Bartschius from Bayer's manuscripts; and some Persian tables brought into Europe by George Chryso cocca. BOUILLON, the capital of an antient duchy of that name, now forming part of the prov. of Luxembourg, is situated on the left bank of the river Semoy, and 14 m. from its junction with the Maese, in 49° 48′ N. lat., and 4° 59' E. long. The duchy is on the W. side of Luxembourg, between it and Champagne, and under the French empire was included in the dep. of the Sambre and the Maas. It is a hilly district lying in the middle of the Ardennes. Bouillon is a small neatly built town and contains about 2500 inh. It has two communal schools, in which 178 boys and 160 girls are instructed. The castle of Bouillon, which was formerly thought to be impregnable, is built upon a steep rock overlooking the town, but is itself commanded by the neighbouring hills. The town and duchy of Bouillon were the hereditary possessions of Godfrey, the leader of the first crusade and king that a litter became necessary for his conveyance over Mount Taurus. On arriving at Jerusalem he encamped his division on Mount Calvary, and after five weeks of severe struggle and acute suffering, the Holy City was carried by storm on July 15, 460 years after its conquest by Omar. Three days of unsparing butchery succeeded this brilliant triumph, during which the exertions of Godfrey were wholly inadequate to restrain the lawless passions of the soldiery flushed with victory. The unanimous voice of the Christian army, after much intrigue, proclaimed him first Latin King of Jerusalem; but his piety and modest forbearance rejected the title; and even when in the end he consented to assume the inferior style of Defender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre,' he persisted in refusing to wear any diadem in that city in which his Redeemer had been crowned with thorns. He secured himself in the government to which he had been thus honourably elevated, by totally overthrowing the myriads brought against him by the sultan of Egypt, at Ascalon, Aug. 12, 1099. With the assistance and advice of those pilgrims who were best skilled in European jurisprudence, Godfrey compiled and promulgated a code named Les Assises de Jerusalem; which, as finally revised towards the close of the fourteenth century for the use of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus, is printed in old law French in Beaumanoir's Coutumes de Beauvaisais,' Bourges and Paris, 1690. Godfrey died in the year 1100, after much too short a reign for the glory and happiness of his newlyestablished kingdom. His virtues and talents are now chiefly remembered by the glowing eulogy of Tasso; but they are fully avouched by the concurrent testimony of historians frequently differing on other points. BOULAC. [CAIRO.] BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI DE, Count of St. Saire, in Normandy, was of an antient and noble family, of Picard extraction. He was the eldest son of François, Count of St. Saire, and of Susanne de Manneville; born at the place from which he derived his hereditary title, October 21st, 1658. He studied at St. Julien, where he particularly addicted himself to the somewhat dry pursuit of genealogical history. After a short period of military service, embarrassed family circumstances, arising chiefly from an imprudent second marriage which his father contracted late in life, induced him to quit the army, and to live upon his estates in retirement. His time was devoted to literature; but none of his writings were published from his own MSS. till after his death, which took place on January 23rd, 1722. | His works on different portions of the feudal history of his own country occupy three volumes folio, and are characterised by the President Hénault to be so rigidly framed on a false system, as to permit their author to appear ni bon critique, ni bon publiciste.' Montesquieu and Voltaire however give a more favourable judgment. A marked antipathy to revelation pervades his writings, and exhibits itself in singular contrast with a superstitious reverence for judicial astrology, and the mystic sciences, which he cultivated with much diligence. A Life of Mohammed extends only to the Hegira, and represents him as a blameless hero. Languet du Fresnoy committed to the press the MS. of the treatise which is called Réfutation des Erreurs de Benoit de Spinosa, par M. de Fénélon, Archevêque de Cambray, par le Père Louis Bénédictin, et par M. le Comte de Boulainvilliers; avec la Vie de Spinosa, écrite par Jean Colerus, ministre de l'Eglise Lutherienne à la Haye, augmentée de beaucoup de Particularités tirés d'une Vie manuscrite de ce philosophe faite par un de ses amis (Lucas, a physician), Brussels, 1731, 8vo. The tract, instead of being, as its title imports, a refutation of Spinosa, is an arrangement and a defence of his materialism. In the wellknown letters on the Parliaments of France, which were translated into English, the author shows clearly that he was fully aware of the defects of the political system of France, as exhibited in the want of an efficient national legislature. BOULEVARD, or BOULEVART, a French word corresponding to our own terms bulwark and rampart, the former of which is obviously akin to the French 'Boulevard.' The word, according to Ducange, is an altered form of Bourgward, the territory of a Bourg, or collection of houses. It is applied to all the space occupied by a bastion or curtain; (Dict. de l'Acad.) and also to the promenades which in some French towns have been formed on the site of fortifications now demolished. Thus the promenades which surround the city of Bourges have the title of Les Boulevards Villeneuve,' The boulevards of Paris form a remarkable feature of that capital. Those on the N. side of the Seine form a continuous line of wide street or road, planted on each side with elm-trees; approaching in form to a semicircle or rather a semi-ellipse, and extending in length to nearly three miles, from the church of La Madeleine to the site of the Bastile. They are about midway between the river and the wall of Paris, which again is surrounded by a road planted with trees, and called 'Boulevards Exterieurs; but these are not worthy of much notice. They abound with places of amusement for the working classes of Paris; and as the duty on wine is not paid except it is actually conveyed within the barriers, all the cheap wine-shops are on these boulevards, which are not generally inviting as a mere piomenade. The boulevards on the S. side of the Seine are planted and laid out like those above mentioned, but are more extensive, and approach in some places close to the wall and coincide with it. The length of these is perhaps between four and five miles. The N. boulevards are distinguished by the magnificence of their buildings, the shops, cafés, hotels, and places of public amusement which adorn them, and the gay multitude by which they are thronged. The S. boulevards are less frequented by the Parisians. These boulevards are on the site of the walls of Paris demolished by Louis XIV. (Paris and its Historical Scenes in the Library of Entertaining Knowledge.) BOULOGNE, or, as it is sometimes called, to distinguish it from other places of the same name, BOULOGNE-SURMER (i. e., on the sea), a sea-port and town of France, in the dep. of Pas de Calais. It lies about 10 or 11 m. S. of the Cap de Gris Nez, and at the mouth of the little river Lianne or Liane, which falls into the English Channel and forms the har. : it is 131 m. N. by W. of Paris in a straight line, or 137 m. by the road through Beauvais, Abbeville, and Montreuil; in 50° 44′ N. lat. and 1° 35′ E. long. Boulogne is a place of great antiquity. It was in the country of the Morini, a tribe of the Belgæ, and was known to the Romans by the name of Gesoriacum, according to the testimony of Mela, a geographer who flourished in the time of the Emperor Claudius. The manner in which Mela speaks of it implies that it was of Gallic origin; and it was in his time the place of greatest note on that coast.* Some writers, and among them Montfaucon, Cluverius, Sanson, and Le Quien, have endeavoured to show that Boulogne was also the Portus Itius, from which Julius Cæsar embarked for Britain, in his first (according to Strabo) and second expeditions to that island; but their opinion is rejected by D'Anville, who agrees with Du Cange, and with our own antiquary Camden, in fixing the Portus Itius at Witsand or Wissan, a small town near Cap de Griz Nez. Gesoriacum became, under the Romans, the chief port of embarkation for Britain: here, D'Anville thinks, was the tower erected by Caligula, when he marched to the coast of Gaul in order to invade Britain; and the Emperor Claudius, according to Suetonius, embarked here for that island. The port in Britain with which a communication was chiefly maintained was Rutupiæ, now Richborough, near Sandwich. About the time of the Emperor Constantine, the name of Bononia was substituted for that of Gesoriacum, and the latter is not used by Ammianus Marcellinus, Eutropius, and other writers of a later period. In the Notitia Provinciarum Galliarum, subjoined to the Itinerary of Antoninus, mention is made of the Civitas Bononensium as distinct from the Civitas Morinorum, which indicates that the country of the Morini had been divided between two communities, of one of which Bononia was the capital. When, in the latter part of the third century, Carausius was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain, he possessed himself of Bononia, which appears to have been one of the Roman naval stations, for Carausius, before his revolt, had been directed to fit out from it a fleet to clear the sea of pirates. This town was in consequence besieged by the Cæsar Constantius Chlorus, father of Constantine the Great. The siege, which ended in the capture of the town, was the occasion of serious detriment to it. In the fifth century Bononia is said to have been unsuccessfully attacked by Attila king of the Huns; and in the ninth century it was The words of Mela are pertinetque (frons litorum) ad ultimos Gallica rum gentium, Morinos, nec portu quem Gesoriacum vocant quicquam notius habet-[Lib. iii. c. 2, edit. Abr. Gronovil]; and the face of the shore reaches to the country of the Morini, the most remote of the Gallic nations; and there is nothing on it better known than the harbour, which is called Gesoriacum." laid waste by the Northmen, who had landed just by. (D'Anville; Expilly, Dict.) From the discovery of a ring to which the cables of vessels were fastened, it is thought that the sea flowed up as far as the present upper town of Boulogne, in which case Gesoriacum must have been at the bottom of a small bay. and in fine weather of the coast of England. There are At the commencement of the present century Boulogne Since the peace of 1815 Boulogne has much increased in extent and population, and also much improved in its general appearance. It is much resorted to as a bathing place, and many English families have made it their permanent residence. In 1815 it had only 13,000 inhabitants; the returns of 1832 give 20,856, and the guide books of two or three years later 25,000. Several Roman antiquities have been discovered at Boulogne; among these are medals and tombs. During 1823, 1826, and 1827. several tombs were discovered. Those discovered in 1823 were close to the sea; those discovered in 1826 and 1827 were a little out of the town, on the right of the road to Paris. The coffins in these last-mentioned tombs were ranged in regular order, and the bones (some of which bore the marks of deep wounds) were in good preservation. Several wells, a Roman road, and the foundations of what was considered to be a votive altar, were discovered at the same place; also many vases of different forms, and a great number of medals. Similar discoveries had been made before. On a cliff near the entrance of the port there stood a tower, which tower D'Anville considers to be one built by Caligula, as mentioned above. It was an octagon, and each side is said to have been about 24 or 25 French (equal to 25 or 264 English) ft. (at the base we presume), and it rose to the height of 125 ft.* It had twelve stages or floors, and the diameter of the tower appears to have diminished 3 ft. at each stage, so as to form so many external galleries of a foot and a half in width, going all round the tower. On the top of the tower lights were placed, so that it served as a light-house to vessels navigating the channel. The tower was built in a manner somewhat similar to that of the Palais des Thermes, a Roman edifice at Paris. It was built with iron grey-stone, three tiers together, succeeded by a double tier of a yellow stone of a softer texture, and on this a double tier of very hard and red bricks. At the time of its erection it stood more than a bow-shot from the sea, but the cliff was so much excavated by the waves, and fell in so far, that the tower was at last undermined and overthrown in the year 1644. It had been repaired by The town is on the right bank of the Lianne, the course Charlemagne in the early part of the ninth century; and of which is here to the N.W. The upper town, which apwhen the English were in possession of Boulogne they sur-proaches to the form of a parallelogram, the direction of rounded this tower with a wall and towers, so as to convert whose sides is N.E and S.W., and N.W. and S.E., and it into a donjon or keep of a fortress. These walls and has the old castle at its eastern angle, is about a quarter towers shared the fate of the original Roman work in being of a mile from the riv. This is the most ancient part overthrown by the advance of the sea. The tower was of Boulogne, and has narrow irregular streets, but good named in the middle ages Turris ordans' (supposed to be houses. The lower town extends along the riv. nearly a corruption of ardens, burning) or ordensis; and it is still to its mouth, and occupies the space between the riv. spoken of as the Tour d'Ordre. There were in the middle and the upper town. This part is regularly built; there of the last century some ruins of the Roman walls, built of is a kind of suburb called Capécure, on the left bank of the the same materials as the above-mentioned towers. Lianne, which has been lately added to Boulogne by an edict of the king. The lower town is much larger, more populous and more commercial than the upper town, and contains the greater part of the public buildings. The supply of water, which is not of good quality, is by means of fountains, of which there are five in the upper and twelve in the lower town: the latter are supplied from a reservoir near the column of Napoleon. Arrangements have been made, and are probably by this time nearly completed, for lighting the town by means of gas. There are promenades on the ramparts of the upper town; and there is an open space called the Tinterelles, on the N. side of the town, in a neighbourhood adorned with new streets and elegant houses. The sands are of considerable extent, and form an excellent promenade at low water. In the year 1231 Philippe of France, son of the King Philippe Auguste, casued new walls to be built inclosing a smaller space than had been occupied by the Roman town. This inclosure was that of the upper town (as it is now termed) at the eastern angle of which a citadel or castle was built by the same Philippe. Boulogne had before this time been erected into a county, of which he had acquired possession by marriage. Boulogne now became a frontier fortress, and resisted various attacks made upon it. In 1544 it was however taken by the English under King Henry VIII., owing to the cowardice of the governor (according to Expilly) who refused to comply with the entreaties of the more gallant townsmen to hold out. The English monarch set himself to strengthen the town by every means in his power: he fortified the Tour d'Ordre, as already noticed, ordered another fort to be built between that and the town called la Maison Rouge, and some others in different places. But by treaty, in 1550, Edward VI. of England restored Boulogne to France. While Boulogne was in possession of the English Henry II. of France built two forts very near the town in order to straiten and annoy the garrison. After the recovery of the place from foreign dominion, the lower town, which had risen as a suburb of the upper town, on the side next to the riv., was surrounded by walls and the upper town strengthened by towers and other new works; but in 1687, by order of the king, the towers were blown up, and there remained to the upper town only the wall which encircled it, the castle, and one boulevard or bulwark; and to the lower town only a portion of its wall. The walls of the upper town are still standing: they are planted with a double row of trees, and afford a delightful promenade, commanding a view of the lower town, the sea, We are not sure whether these are French or English feet, Among the principal public buildings of the upper town are the Hôtel de Ville or Town Hall, behind which is an antient tower, the Beffroi (belfry), formerly belonging to a larger building of which it is the relic; the Palais de Justice, where the courts of law sit; an antient episcopal palace, now used as a boarding-school, and the Maison d'Arrêt, or prison. Besides these are some religious establishments. In the lower town are-the Hôtel or office of the Sub-prefecture; the building formerly a seminary for the priesthood and now occupied by several institutions for the promotion of science; the barracks; the hospital; and a building lately erected for various charitable purposes. There are in Boulogne two churches and three convents for nuns, the most considerable of which is that of the Sœurs Grises (Grey Sisters) containing about seventy nuns; two British Episcopalian chapels and one British Wesleyan chapel. There are several charitable institutions: the hospital contains above 200 inmates, aged and infirm persons, and foundling or orphan children; and there are nearly 300 children (foundlings) under 12 years of age at nurse 1 inhabitants of Paris who had returned from a pilgrimage to Boulogne-sur-Mer. The chapel built by the brethren of this community became crowded by the devotees from Paris, and the vil. acquired the name of Boulogne, from the pilgrimage which its founders had undertaken. The pop. of the com. was, in 1832, 5391; of the vil. itself, 5210. Between Paris and the vil. of Boulogne extends the Bois de Boulogne, an extensive wood intersected in all directions by alleys and roads. Many of the fine trees which once adorned it have been cut down, and it is now merely an extensive copse thinly scattered with young plants. Much of the wood was destroyed by the Prussians, when they had their camp here at the close of the late war. In passion week, the wood is the scene of an annual procession, formerly partaking of a religious character, but now formed of little else than a string of vehicles filled by people desirous of being as gay and merry as possible. in the country: an infant asylum for children from 18 | months to 6 years, provides for 120 young children of destitute parents. There is a humane society for the recovery of drowned persons. There are two girls' free-schools, managed by the Sœurs Grises, and attended by about 750 children; elementary free-schools for about 1200 boys under the direction of the Frères de la Doctrine Chrétienne; a Lancasterian free-school; a free-school for navigation, and two or three institutions which may be described as schools of industry. There does not appear to be any Collège Royal or high school at Boulogne, but there is an abundance of private seminaries both French and English; and there are academies for music and drawing, in which gratuitous instruction is given. There is a museum of natural history, antiquities, objects of art, &c.; also a good public library of above 22,000 volumes and 300 MSS.: an agricultural society, a society of the friends of the arts, and a philharmonic society. Of places of amusement may be mentioned the theatre, and the splendid bathing establishment, comprehending reading, music, assembly and card rooms. Horse-races have just been established, and balls; fairs, and several fêtes in the neighbourhood called Ducasses fill up the circle of amusements. The har, of Boulogne has been much improved of late years, but is still difficult of access, and has not water enough when the tide is out. It consists of the channel of the riv. Lianne, and of a semicircular basin on the left bank of the riv. At low water the vessels rest in the mud, through which the stream finds its way to the ocean. From the mouth of the riv. two piers are carried out about 2000 ft. into the sea. The trade of the town is considerable and is increasing. The fisheries are important. The herring and mackerel seasons call into employment a considerable capital, and several vessels are fitted out for the Newfoundland cod fishery. The fishermen form a peculiar class in society, and their customs, dress, language and habits remain almost the same amidst the changes which the intercourse with foreigners has been working in other classes. They are very superstitious. Before the Revolution Boulogne was the seat of a bishopric, erected in the 16th century from part of the former diocese of Therouenne. It has now again lost its episcopal rank. The cathedral, which was destroyed in the Revolution, was considered one of the most ancient religious edifices in France. Before the Revolution were some monasteries now suppressed. Boulogne was the birth-place of Thurot, an eminent French naval officer: Le Sage, the author of 'Gil Blas,' and the English poet Churchill died here. Boulogne is the capital of an arrond. which contains 348 sq. m., and is subdivided into six cantons and 100 communes. The inhabitants, by the census of 1832, were 98,099. About a mile from Boulogne on the Calais road is the column voted by the grand army to Napoleon as an expression of their esteem and admiration. It was also designed to commemorate the institution of the Legion of Honour. Each soldier contributed a portion of his pay, and the first stone was laid by Marshal Soult; but the work was not finished till the reign of Louis XVIII., when the monument was perverted from its original purpose, being made to commemorate the return of the Bourbons, and in place of the statue of Napoleon, by which it was to have been surmounted, a gilt globe, adorned with fleurs de lis, has been substituted. It is now however likely to be restored to its original purpose of a monument in honour of Napoleon, and the present government of France has promised to furnish the bronze for the intended statue. The column is of the Composite order, above 160 English ft. high, and more than 13 in diameter. There is a staircase within by which visitors ascend to an iron gallery round the ball which surmounts the column, from which gallery is a very extensive prospect. The column is composed of marble from the quarries of Marquise in the neighbourhood. In the environs of Boulogne is the botanical garden, formed in 1784 by the Baron de Courset, considered to be one of the finest and most extensive in France. It contains a numerous and beautiful collection of plants, and is much visited by the inhabitants or visitors of Boulogne. BOULOGNE, a village in the immediate neighbourhood of Paris, to the S.W. of that city, is upon the right bank of the Seine, and just opposite St. Cloud. It was formerly called Menus. About the fourteenth century a brotherhood was formed here in honour of the Virgin by some In the Bois de Boulogne were three Châteaux belonging to the royal family. That of Muette, which was frequented by Louis XV., is close to the vil. of Passy. The Château de Madrid is said to have been built by Francis I. after his return from captivity. This was destroyed at the Revolution; of the present condition or use of the Château de Muette we have no late account. The third château is that of Bagatelle, built by the ex-King of France, Charles X., while Count d'Artois; and occupied, after the restoration of the Bourbons, by his son the Duc de Berri. The inscription over the portal, parva sed apta small but convenient, gives the true character of the place. (Planta's Picture of Paris). BOULONNOIS, a district in the former prov. of Picardie, deriving its name from its capital Boulogne-surMer, now forming part of the dep. of Pas de Calais. The climate is rather cold, but the land is fertile in grain, and affords pasturage to a great number of cattle, from whose milk good butter is made. Some coal is dug, and there are mineral springs. The Boulonnois was bounded on the N. by the district in which Calais is situated, called the Puys Reconquis, on the E. by Artois, on the S. by Ponthieu, and on the W. by the sea. It formed part of the country of the Morini, a Belgic tribe. It appears to have become an hereditary co in the 9th century, and underwent various changes; but its history does not present any points of interest. It was re-united to the crown by Louis XI. (Expilly, Dict.) BOULTON, MATTHEW, was born Sept. 3rd, 1728, at Birmingham, where his father carried on the business of a hardwareman. He received an ordinary education at a school at Deritend; and also acquired a knowledge of drawing and mathematics. At the age of seventeen he effected some improvements in shoe-buckles, buttons, and several other articles of Birmingham manufacture. The death of his father left him in possession of considerable property; and in order to extend his commercial operations, he purchased, about 1762, a lease of Soho, near Handsworth, which though only two miles from Birmingham, is not in the same county, but in Staffordshire. It would scarcely be possible to select a more striking instance of the beneficial changes effected by the combined operations of industry, ingenuity, and commerce, than that which was presented by Soho after it had been some time in Mr. Boulton's possession. It had previously been a bleak and barren heath, but was soon diversified by pleasure grounds, in the midst of which stood Mr. Boulton's spacious mansion, and a range of extensive and commodious workshops capable of receiving above a thousand artisans. These workshops were described by a tourist (Warner), thirty-five years ago, as being equally striking both for their neatness and magnificence. In 1797 Mr. Boulton purchased the fee-simple of this estate with a considerable portion of land adjoining. To Mr. Boulton's active mind this country is eminently indebted for the manner in which he extended its resources, and brought into repute its manufacturing ingenuity. Water was an inadequate moving power in seconding his designs, and he had recourse to steam. The old engine on Savary's plan was not adapted for some purposes in which it was requisite that great power should be combined with delicacy and precision of action. In 1769 Mr. Boulton having entered into communication with Watt, who had obtained a patent for some improvements in the steamengine, Watt was induced to settle at Soho. In 1775 parliament granted him a farther extension of the privileges of his patent for improvements in the steam-engine; and on his entering into partnership with Mr. Boulton, the Soho VOL. V.-2 N works soon became famous for their excellent engines. Dr. | furthering the true interests of commerce than the balance Mr. Boulton has been described by Playfair as possessing a most generous and ardent mind, to which was added an enterprising spirit that led him to grapple with great and difficult undertakings. He was a man of address' (continues the same writer), 'delighting in society, active, and mixing with people of all ranks with great freedom and without ceremony.' Watt, who survived Mr. Boulton, spoke of his deceased partner in the highest terms. He said, To his friendly encouragement, to his partiality for scientific improvements, and to his ready application of them to the purposes of art, to his intimate knowledge of business and manufactures, and to his extended views and liberal spirit, may in a great measure be ascribed whatever success may have attended my exertions. Mr. Boulton expended about 47,0007. in the course of experiments on the steam-engine, before Watt perfected the construction and occasioned any return of profit. Mr. Boulton died August 17th, 1809, in his 81st year. His remains were attended to the grave by several thousand individuals, to whom medals were given, recording the age of the deceased and the day of his death. The body was borne to the grave by the oldest workmen connected with the works at Soho, and about five hundred persons belonging to that establishment joined in the procession. Mr. Boulton left an only son, to whom the Soho works at present belong. BOUNTY, a term used to signify a premium paid by government to the producers, exporters, or importers of certain articles, or to those who employ ships in certain trades. (M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce.) A distinction must be made between a bounty and a drawback, which latter is not liable to the same objection as the former. Premiums given by the public to artists and manufacturers who excel in their particular occupations must also be regarded in a different light from bounties applied to the maintenance of particular branches of commerce. [DRAWBACK; PREMIUM.] Perhaps the most objectionable and vicious mode of protecting the interests of commerce is by means of bounties. A tariff may be framed on such narrow and exclusive views as to be nearly as injurious to a country, but the evil consequences are less palpable; and hence bounties have ceased to be considered as advantageous to the general interest, while high or prohibitory import duties are more or less adopted by all commercial nations. The question of bounties and their impolicy is discussed by Adam Smith in his 'Wealth of Nations,' book iv. chap. 5; and the subject has also been treated in a very complete manner by the late Mr. Ricardo in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Postlethwaite, in his Dictionary of Commerce,' published in 1774 in two vols. folio, under the head Bounties, refers to a work specially dedicated to this and similar subjects; and the reason he alleges for so doing is that they are so very numerous.' After the publication of Adam Smith's work bounties began to be regarded with less favour, and have at length sunk into complete discredit. They are now no more relied upon as a means of And One of the most striking instances of the failure of the bounty system occurred about the middle of the last century in connexion with the white herring fishery. A joint stock company was created, with a capital of 500,000, for the purpose of vigorously prosecuting this branch of our fisheries; and though in addition to a bounty of 30s. a ton the Company was allowed an exportation bounty of 28. 8d. a barrel, the delivery of British and foreign salt duty free, and though for every 100%. subscribed 37. a-year interest was paid by the government, yet, in spite of such extraordinary encouragement, the greatest portion of the capital employed was lost. Individuals, for the sake of the bounties, rashly ventured into the business without a knowledge of the mode of carrying it on in the most economical and judicious manner. The bounty on the exportation of corn was given up in 1815, and those on the exportation of linen and several other articles ceased in 1830. The following (Government Official Tables, p. 4) shows that bounties will probably so›n cease to be considered as forming any part of our commereial policy Bounties for promoting Fisheries, Linen Manufactures, &c. in the United Kingdom, £. S. d. : 445,162 13 4 1829 483,066 6 23 £. $. d. 273,269 14 10 233,941 4 199,263 5 13 170,999 5 14 1826 315,339 5 4 1832 |