summits of which are hardly anywhere more than 20 m. from the coast, is called Serra do Mar (the sea range). The highest summits rise to about 3500 ft., and the passes over it to from 2000 to 2500 ft. This range continues to the S., but S. of the bay of Santos it recedes to about 60 or 80 m. from the coast. It is here occasionally called Serra Cubatão, and runs first S.W. and then S., to a point opposite the Morro de S. Marta, where at the sources of the Rio Uraguay it turns W., and advancing in that direction about 200 m., terminates on the banks of the Rio Uruguay to the N. of the junction of the Ibecuy-guaçu with it. From the S. side of this W. chain an elevated table-land extends S. between the riv. Uraguay and the shores, and continues in Uraguay Oriental, where it terminates near the vast mouth of the riv. La Plata, with the Punta Negra and Cape de S. Maria. This table-land, which in some places is called Serra dos Tappes, is of moderate height, but considerable width, approaching the banks of the Uraguay within a short distance, but remaining about 100 m. from the E. shores. A few low hills rise upon it. This tableland may be considered as the most S. and narrowest portion of the upland of Brazil. federal republic of La Plata. From Paraguay it is separated partly by the Rio Parana and its tributary Ivinheima, and partly by a range of high lands which terminate on the banks of the Paraguay. The boundary-line passes that riv., and runs in a N.W. direction along the unknown portion of Bolivia, till it meets the Rio Guaporé (about 13° S. lat.), by which river Brazil is separated from Bolivia as far as its confluence with the Mamore, which latter continues to form the boundary-line up to its junction with the Beni. At this point begins the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, but it traverses countries entirely unknown, and is supposed to run due W. along the parallel of 11° S. lat., as far as the Hyabary, and then to the N. along the course of this riv. to its junction with the Rio Amazonas. The boundary-line between Ecuador and Brazil runs due N. about 68° 40′ W. long. from the Rio Amazonas, to nearly 1° N. lat., and thence E. to the Rio Branco, a tributary of the Rio Negro. The remainder of the boundary-line runs N.E. along the mountain range which separates the upper branches of the Rio Branco from those of the Orinoco, and turns at the sources of the former to the E., extending hence along the Sierra Baracay na to the sources of the Mazarony, where Brazil begins to border Another and higher range of mountains runs nearly on the British settlements in Essequibo and Demarara. parallel to the Serra do Mar, at a distance of about 40 or This boundary in all its extent is formed by a mountain-60 m. from the sea. It begins to the N.W. of the town of range. It runs at first S.S.E. and then E., until it joins St. Paolo, where it is called Serra de Iaragua, and advancthe Dutch colony of Surinam, and afterwards the French ing thence to the N.E. it becomes higher, and is called settlement of Cayenne. Where the mountain-range ceases Serra da Mantigueira. It afterwards turns N., and contithe Rio Oayapock constitutes the boundary between Brazil nues in that direction to the town of Villa Rica, where it and French Guiana to its mouth. On the N.E, and E. may be considered to terminate with Mount Itacolumi, being Brazil is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, divided from the range extending farther to the N. by a deep but narrow depression. At the source of the Rio Tiete, a tributary of the Parana, this range is united to the Serra do Mar by a tract of high ground. It contains the highest mountains of Brazil, which are situated where it begins to run due N. between the sources of the Rio Grande, the principal branch of the Parana, and the Rio Preto, a small tributary of the Parahyba. The Pico dos Orgaos rises to 7786 ft., the Morro de Papagaio to 7466 ft., and another summit which has not yet been distinguished by any name, to 8426 ft. The Itacolumi is 6080 ft. high. The passes across this chain rise to upwards of 3000 ft. The coast, which is probably little short of 4000 m., presents various appearances. From Cape S. Maria in Uraguay, to the Morro de S. Marta (about 31° S. lat.), an extent of upwards of 300 m., the coast is low, sandy, and intersected by the outlets of numerous lakes, which skirt the shores in all this extent, in which it trends from S.W. to N.E. At the Morro de S. Marta, where it runs to the N., it begins to be rocky, but rises only to any considerable height to the N. of the island of S. Catherina. From the island of S. Francesco it trends to the N.E., and from the harbour of Santos to Cape Frio it runs nearly due E.; and thence to the bay of Espirito Santo N.E. In all this extent of nearly 1000 m. the coast is rocky, and in some parts rather high; it has a great number of indentations and excellent harbours, generally surrounded by flats of moderate extent. The most rocky and highest part is between Santos and Cape Frio. From the bay of Espirito Santo to Bahia de Todos os Santos, the shores extend nearly S. and N.; this portion of about 600 m., is in general low and level, especially between the mouth of the Rio Doce and the small river Buranhen; to the N. of the latter it commonly rises from four to six yards in height, but is generally level; towards Cape S. Antonio it sinks lower. Along this coast, in about 18° S. lat., at a distance of from 25 to 30 m., extend the rocky banks of the Abrolhos; the coasting vessels commonly pass between them and the shores. The coasts of the E. projection of Brazil from Cape S. Antonio nearly to the mouth of the river Parnahyba are of moderate height, rising perhaps nowhere above 30 ft., but they contain no harbours, except those formed by the mouths of the riv. This extent may be upwards of 800 m. The remainder of the shore, from the mouth of the Parnahyba to that of the Amazonas, is extremely low and marshy, a few sandy hills rising on it at great distances from one another. In all this extent of about 700 m. there are few harbours. To the N. of the Rio Amazonas the coast is rather sandy and somewhat higher, though of inconsiderable elevation. Some parts are subject to a sudden rise of the sea at spring tides, which phenomenon is called pororóca. [BORE.] This coast extends about 400 miles. To the N. of Villa Rica the chain again rises and continues to the N., declining by degrees some points to the E. till it reaches the banks of the Rio de S. Francesco, which breaks through the chain, where it forms the cataract called Cachoeira (fall) de Santo Affonso. This chain, which had not obtained any peculiar name among the inhabitants, is now called Serra Espinhaco. It is of considerable height in its S. part, but does not attain that of the Serra Mantigueira; its highest summit, the Itambé, near Villa do Principe, rises only to the height of the Itacolumi. In proceeding N. it sinks considerably, and hardly any summit in the prov. of Bahia rises to 4000 ft., while the passes do not exceed 1800 ft. This chain remains generally 150 m. from the coast, but its offsets in some places approach it within 20 miles. North of the great cataract of Affonso the mountains, called here Serra Araripe or dos Cayriris, rise again to a considerable elevation, and form between 7° and 6° S. lat. a table-land of considerable extent, from which several ranges of high hills are detached to the E. and N., some of which terminate at no great distance from the shore between the Rio S. Francesco and the Rio Parnahyba. The most considerable of these lateral ranges are the Serra Borboréma, which separates the prov. of Rio Grande do Norte from that of Séarà and the Serra Ibiapaba, which constitutes the boundary between Séarà and Piauby. The elevation of n. one point in this mountain-system, which covers the greater part of the E. projection of Brazil, has been determined by measurement, though some portion of it rises to a considerable height. From its S.W. corner a mountain-range of moderate The surface of Brazil is divided between upland and low-elevation runs S.W. along the Rio S. Francesco, and then land. As the boundaries of the two regions have been W. to the sources of the Rio Parnahyba, where it turns N., ascertained only in a few places, it is not possible to esta- and running in that direction at a distance of from 40 to 60 blish the proportions of each; but at a rough calculation it m. from the Rio Tocantins, terminates with a range of low may be assumed, that they occupy nearly equal portions, hills at about 180 m. above the mouth of that riv. Between the upland extending over the E. and central part, and the the Sertão of Pernambuco and the prov. of Piauhy the lowlands principally along both sides of the Rio Amazonas, passes rise to between 1200 and 1300 ft. above the sea. with a smaller portion on the shores, and on the S.W. border. High mountains advance nearly to the shores between the bay of Santos and Cape Frio. This range, the higher To the W. of the range running N. and S., and to that of the Serras Espinhaço, da Mantigueira, and de Cubatão extends the upland of Brazil far into the interior of South : extremely hot and subject to long-continued droughts, which cause great mortality among men and cattle. The rains commonly begin at the end of October, and continue to April or May. They are accompanied by violent thunderstorms, and most abundant rains towards the end of the season, when they cause the rivs. to overflow the adjacent | low grounds. America, but it grows narrower as it runs W. Its N. boun- | The extensive space enclosed within these boundaries is The principal riv., and that which is the receptacle of all the waters collected in this plain, the Paraguay, rises on the top of the Serra Paricis in the Sete Lagoas (seven lakes), which are at a short distance from one another, and communicate by narrow channels. Issuing from the last of these lakes the riv. flows through a swampy country in a N. direction for a short space, when it winds round by the W. and takes a S. course. It descends from the range with a rapid course, receiving from the E. and W. a great number of small streams, until it arrives in the plain, about 150 m. from its source: but its course still farther down is broken in some places by low falls, which however cease at its confluence with the Sipotuba, its first considerable tributary, which joins it on the right bank. From this point its waters are deep, and navigable for vessels of considerable size. Farther down it receives, on the right, the Jaurù, which likewise rises in the Serra Paricis, and at about the middle of its course is joined by the Agoapehy, which originates in the Serra Agoapehy. Opposite the confluence of the Jaurù is a range of elevated land, which ceases about 25 m. lower down, at a point called Escalvada (16° 40′ N. lat.), where both margins of the riv. begin to be flat and low and interspersed with lakes. The low country extends to a great distance on both sides of the riv.; and of the lakes The highest portion of the table-land seems to lie con- some are of considerable extent, especially three called tiguous to the range of mountains which divides the upper Oberaba, Gahyba, and Mandiore, which lie on the right branches of the Rio S. Francesco and of the affluents bank, and are from 10 to 15 m. in diameter. They are of the Rio Amazonas from those which fall into the Parana separated from the riv. by rocky cliffs, but united to it by and Paraguay. This extensive range, which has lately been narrow channels which divide the cliffs. In about 21° 20′ S. named Serra dos Vertentes (the watershed range), begins lat. a chain of small mountains on both sides come close on about 60 m. S. of Villa Rica, at the Serra da Mantigueira, the Paraguay, by which its waters are contracted, and flow between the sources of the Paraopeba, an upper branch of with great rapidity in two channels, separated by a rocky the Rio S. Francesco and the Rio Grande, an affluent of isl. of considerable length. This place, which is called the Parana (about 20° 30'S. lat.) It frequently changes its Fecho dos Morros (the barricado of rocks), terminates the direction and makes numerous bends, but runs in general swampy and low margin of the riv. At the end of the to the N.W. and terminates at some distance from the con- rainy season, when the rains are very abundant, and the fluence of the Mamoré and Beni (about 11° S. lat.) In Paraguay cannot carry them off by its narrow channels at different districts it has different names. Between the the Fecho dos Morros, the whole of the low ground is laid sources of the Rio Francisco and the Rio Grande it is under water, and forms a lake, nearly 700 m. in length and called Serra Cànestra and Serra Marcella, and at the sources from 70 to 150 m. in width, which covers a surface about as of the Tocantins, Serra dos Pyrineos. These, the highest large as Lake Superior in Canada. In September however portion of the Serra dos Vertentes, rise to 3500 ft. and the waters are entirely carried off, and the whole surface is upwards. The ranges farther to the W. are lower. The again laid dry. This temporary lake is called Xarayes, and Serra Seiada divides the upper branches of the Araguay, a indicated in some more antient maps as a true lake. A tributary of the Tocantins, from those of the Pardo, a con- considerable portion of the inundated land is covered with a fluent of the Parana; and the Serra dos Paricis, the Tapajos kind of wild rice, on which innumerable flocks of waterfrom the Paraguay; and the N.W. branch of the latter the fowl, especially of geese, feed; and the boatmen while Tapajos from the Guaporé. The latter ranges probably passing shake off from the ears, which are always above never attain 3000 ft. At the place where the Serra Paricis the water, as much as they please. turns to the N. it sends off a branch to the S.S.W., which, after a course of about 180 m., terminates in the plains of Chiquitos in Bolivia. This range, which is called Serra Agoapehy, divides the affluents of the Paraguay from the Ubahy, a tributary of the Guaporé, and, consequently, of the Madeira, and seems not to rise to the height of the Serra Paricis. That portion of Brazil which, lying to the S. of the Serra dos Vertentes, borders on the W. on the Serra Agoapehy, and on the E. on the Serra Cubatão, is divided into two portions by a range of heights extending between 52° and 57° E. long. from the Serra Seiada southwards between the affluents of the Paraguay and Paranà. It enters the Paraguay and sends a branch eastwards, which terminates at the great waterfalls of the Paranà, called Sete Quedas. The country to the E. of this range is the high table-land of the Parana, that to the W. the lowland of the Paraguay. The lowland of the Paraguay, with the exception of the rather rapid descent of the enclosing mountains and a few hills or short ranges in the interior of the plain, presents nearly a level country, which declines imperceptibly towards the banks of the riv. Paraguay, where it terminates in swampy flats many miles wide. Near the rivs. it is covered with high trees, but the intervening spaces are grassy plains of considerable extent, here and there interrupted by barren tracts. This immense plain, which, though situated in the centre of America, hardly attains an elevation of 1000 ft., is During its course through this low plain the Paraguay is joined on the left by two considerable tributaries, the Rio de S. Lourenço and the Tacoary. The S. Lourenço, which rises to the E. of the upper branches of the Paraguay, is not inferior in length to the principal river, and runs in a S. W. direction upwards of 400 m., receiving about 100 m. from its mouth the Cujaba, which flows about 300 m. Both rivers are navigated to a considerable extent. The Tacoary, whose whole course may not exceed 300 m., rises with its numerous branches in the mountains E. of the plain; and though its navigation is rendered difficult by numerous waterfalls, it facilitates the communication of the internal provinces of Brazil. At the Fecho dos Morros the Paraguay leaves Brazil and enters the republic of Paraguay. The table-land of the Paranà, which extends on the E. of the lowland of the Paraguay, is everywhere surrounded by mountain ranges. To the W. is the chain which divides the affluents of the Paranà from those of the Paraguay, to the N. the Serra dos Vertentes, to the E. the Serra da Mantigueira and the Serra Cubatão, and to the S. a range which (about 26° S. lat.) detaches itself from the Serra Cubatão and extends W. along the Iguassù to the Salto da Vittoria. Only in the comparatively short space between this Salto of the Iguassù and the Sete Quedas of the Paranà the region is open towards the republic of Paraguay, from which it is separated by the Parana. the Paranà is nearly 4 m. wide, but at the falls the bed of the river is contracted to about 50 fathoms. The immense volume of the river is then divided into seven channels, formed by six small islands of rock, and precipitated down the ledges with a current of indescribable fury and awful noise. This cataract impedes all communication by water between the table-land and the countries below it. To the S. of the Sete Quedas, the Paranà continuing to the S. still receives a large tributary, the Iguassu or Iguaça, which rises about 70 m. from the coast, and traversing a mountainous country forms at a short distance from its mouth the great cataract called Salto da Vittoria, and joins the Paranà after a course of nearly 300 m. After this junction the river still runs S., then turns to the W., and falls into the Paraguay after a course of above 1000 m. The table-land of the Paranà is very uneven along its N.E. and N. border, where the offsets of the Serra da Mantigueira, Serra de Canastra, Serra de Marcella, and Serra dos Pyrineos extend many miles; but the remainder is a plain, presenting extensive levels, interrupted at great distances by hills of very gentle ascent and small elevation. The eastern and higher portion of the table-land is 2000 ft. and upwards above the level of the sea, but it is not known how much it declines on the banks of the Paranà, which runs through the least elevated portion of the table-land. Trees occur only on the declivities of the mountain ranges and in the lower tracts along the course of the rivers: the forests cover probably less than one-third of the surface. The plains are overgrown by a coarse but nourishing grass, here and there intersected by low bushes and a few small isolated trees. They serve as pasture for the innumerable herds of cattle, horses and mules, which constitute the riches of this portion of Brazil. Agriculture, though in a comparatively low state, is more attended to than in many other districts of Brazil, but it is principally limited to the culture of mandiocca, maize, and different kinds of beans; rice is grown in some places and the sugar-cane on the low-chain of mountains, is not known, but it appears to be lands along the rivers. Pine-apples, as well as the fruits of Europe and the vine, thrive very well. Among the fruit trees peculiar to this region is the jacuticaba (Myrtus cauliflora, Mart.), whose fruit gives a palatable wine. In the S. district wheat and flax are grown with success. The variation in the temperature is greater than in those parts which lie near the equator; but neither the heat nor the cold is ever excessive. In the winter (from May to October) hoar frost is only frequent near the mountains, and never occurs in the plains. The average heat is between 60° and 70°, and even in the summer it rarely rises above 80°. During the winter the winds blow from S.S.W. and S.E., but in summer they are irregular. The rain begins in the E. districts in October or November and lasts to April; it is most abundant in January, and then always accompanied by fog during the morning. Farther to the W. on the plains it begins later. First it rains only during night, afterwards in the afternoon, and then alternately in the night and in the day; sometimes for days and even weeks without ces sation. These abundant rains feed a number of large rivers, which traverse the table land from E. to W., having most of them their sources in the ranges, which divide it from the shores: they all unite their waters with those of the Parana. The farthest branches of that large river rise in the mountainous country, where the Serra da Mantigueira unites with the Serra da Canastra. The most distant branch is the Rio Grande, which, rising where the Serra da • Mantigueira turns to the N., at first flows N. and then N.W. for a considerable space; afterwards it turns to the W. and continues some hundred miles in that direction, declining somewhat to the S. towards its junction with the Paranahyba. In this course it receives on the left bank three considerable tributaries, the Sapucahy, the Pardo, and the Mogi, each of which descends through the plains from the S., and runs upwards of 200 m. At the confluence with the Paranahyba the Rio Grande has already had a course of upwards of 500 m., and then its name is changed into that of Paranà. The Paranahyba rises in the Serra dos Pyrineos, receives in its ourse the Corumba, and joins the Rio Grande after a course of upwards of 350 m. Many miles below this confluence the Paranà forms a considerable cataract, called Urubu Punga, and lower down it receives the Tietè, which traverses nearly the middle of the plains. The last-mentioned river rises at no great distance from the shores of the Atlantic in the western declivity of the Serra de Cubatão, and runs upwards of 400 m. Though its navigation is rendered very difficult by numerous rapids and waterfalls, this river has till now been more navigated than any other in the interior of Brazil. Between the Punga Urubu and the Sete Quedas the Paranà receives besides the Tiete two other large tributaries, the Pardo on the right, and the Parannapamena on the left, both running about 300 m. The Pardo, which rises in the Serra Seiada, was formerly much navigated in spite of its numerous rapids and falls. In this tract the Paranà forms many large islands, of which the largest are the Ilha Comprida (Long Island), upwards of 20 m. in length, and the Ilha Grande, which is not much less than 70 m. in length and of considerable width. The Ilha Grande terminates 4 m. above the Sete Quedas (or Seven Falls). Below the S. extremity of the Ilha Grande To the S. of the table-land of the Paranà extends a smaller one of a similar description on both sides of the Upper Uraguay, which is called Campos da Vacaria (cattlefield), being destitute of trees and covered with fine grass, which renders it favourable to the rearing of cattle. Its elevation above the sea, from which it is divided by a considerable. The riv. Uraguay, which rises in the mountains near the coast, traverses it in all its extent, flowing W.N.W. and W. till it enters the plain of the Missiones. The S. extremity of Brazil, which extends S.W. of the Campos da Vacaria, contains two plains, one lying on the N.W. along the riv. Uraguay and the other on the S.E. along the sea-shore. They are divided by a high ground of great breadth but of inconsiderable elevation, which is called Serra dos Tappes. The surface of the high ground extends in spacious and nearly level plains, here and there interrupted by small hills. This upper part is entirely without trees, and covered only by coarse grass and bushes; but on the declivities and in the valleys formed by the offsets of the high ground, many fine trees occur. The valleys are also the only places in which there is any agriculture, and this is nearly confined to the raising of wheat and maize. To the N.W. of this high ground extends along the banks of the Uraguay the plain of the Missiones, which received its name from the seven missiones established here by the Jesuits. This plain is very little known, but seems to be well adapted to the cultivation of different kinds of grain, as well as of cotton and of matte or tea of Paraguay. The riv. Uraguay, which forms its north-western boundary, and divides it from the Missiones of La Plata, is here navigable in all its extent, though it has some rapids. The plain along the sea-shores extends from S.W. to N.E. upwards of 200 m., with an average breadth of between 50 and 60 m. It is nearly a level, rising but little and imperceptibly towards the high ground on the west. Its soil towards the coast is sandy, with a substratum of clay, and produces grass, but no trees. Farther inland the soil is better, but the country still without trees. The most remarkable of the numerous lakes on this coast is the Lagoa dos Patos, one of the largest in South America, which took its name from a tribe of Indians. It extends 150 m. in length from S.W. to N.E., and 35 at its greatest width, so that it there occupies about half of the plain. It has sufficient depth for vessels of a middling size, but some very dangerous shoals. The water is salt in the southern part. It is the recipient of almost all the currents that traverse the plain, and receives, about 12 m. from its northern extremity, the Iacuhy, a winding riv., which rises on the southern extremity of the Campos da Vacaria, and drains a country adapted to agriculture. About 15 m. from its embouchure, the Iacuhy forms a spacious bay on its eastern margin, on which the town of Portalegre is situated. At the S. extremity the lake of Patos receives the Rio de St. Gonçalo, which is properly only the outlet of the lake Mirim. This riv. is about 50 m. long, wide, and navigable. The S. part of the lakes Mirim and Mangueira belongs to Uraguay. [BANDA ORIENTAL.] The lake Dos Patos discharges its waters into the sea by the Rio Grande de St. Pedro, which flows about 10 m. almost N. and S., and is nearly 3 m. in width. The mouth of this riv. is full of shoals, which are the more dangerous as they are subject to be frequently changed by the tides. This part of Brazil, extending between 28° and 33°, enjoys a temperate climate like that of Spain or Italy; the air is pure and healthy. In the valleys and on the plain, frost very rarely occurs on the high ground it is annually felt for one or two months; but as very little snow falls, the cattle find pasture all the year round. From May to Oct. | Along the watercourses are depressions or valleys, but the rains are abundant. The low country between the shores of the Atlantic and the first mountain range, from the Morro de St. Marta on the S. to Cape St. Antonio, near Bahia, on the N., extends in some places 100 and even 120 m. inland, as between the Rio Doce and the Bahia de Todos os Santos. In other places the mountains approach the sea within 15 or 20 m., as between the bay of Santos and Cape Frio. North of the Rio Doce, a level country extends upwards of 80 m. inland, but to the W. of Cape Frio the hills approach so near the sea, that their lower extremity is washed by the high tides, and the traveller can only pass at low water. Except the comparatively small tracts which have been cultivated by European settlers and their descendants, the sides of the mountains and the hills and plains are covered by interminable forests, extending even in the valleys along the banks of the rivers nearly to their sources on the high land. North of Cape Frio, the trees and plants peculiar to a tropical climate are common, but south of it they occur less frequently. The soil is in most places of great fertility, and produces sugar, coffee, cotton, and cacao, mandiocca, maize, and rice in abundance. The riv. in this tract are very numerous, but have a short course, seldom exceeding 100 m. They are generally navigable to 30, 50, or even 60 m. inland. The banks of nearly all of them are skirted by low ground, which are inundated after the rains have begun. The riv. begin to rise in Nov., and the inundation ceases in the middle or towards the end of Jan.: in some it lasts two months, in others only a fortnight. As the mouths of these riv. are commonly formed by a soft soil, they are subject to many changes, which are produced by the variable winds and by the current prevailing on this coast. The largest of these riv. are the Parahyba, the Doce and the Rio Belmonte. The waters brought down by the Doce preserve their freshness for a considerable distance into the ocean, and hence it has received the name of Doce, soft or fresh. The Rio Belmonte, in traversing a mountainous range called Serra dos Aimores, is contracted by two high steep rocks, and descends on a sudden from a height of more than 120 ft. with tremendous noise into a whirlpool. Fifteen m. lower down, it has a little fall, after which it flows through a flat and wooded country to the sea, describing various windings, with a current rapid and wide but of little depth. It contains many flat islands, and receives no considerable stream after it descends the fall. About 20 m. from the sea, the Rio Belmonte is united to the Rio Patype, its nearest neighbour to the N. by a natural channel called Salsa. This country, though mostly within the tropics, enjoys a moderate climate. In Porto Seguro the medium heat, according to Freyreiss, is only 704° Fahrenheit, but at Rio Janeiro 74°, which he attributes to the neighbourhood of the rocky mountains. At the latter place, however, the thermometer occasionally rises to 100° and 110°, even to 120°. In summer (Dec., Jan., and Feb.), the average heat at noon is 86°, and in the morning 72°; and in the winter (June, July, and August), it is 72° at noon, and in the morning 59. Another peculiarity is the great humidity, which arises probably partly from the country being almost entirely covered with high trees and exuberant vegetation, and partly from the regular change of the land and sea winds. The sea winds commonly begin at noon, rarely sooner, more frequently at two o'clock, and blow till nightfall. In the other parts of the day the winds from the W. prevail. The effect of this great humidity of the atmosphere is that the coast of Brazil has not such a regular succession of dry and rainy seasons as other tropical countries. No part of the year is entirely exempt from rain, though the winter is often dry and the sky cloudless; and the rains in the summer are generally very abundant, especially in January. In summer, thunder is very frequent, and always accompanied with violent storms, which, however, never cause damage to be compared with that of the hurricanes in the West Indies. Hail-stones never fall. The Serra Espinhaço, which bounds on the W. the countries on the shore, divides them from the highest part of the table-land of Brazil. This extensive country, which extends W. to the N. branch of the Serra Paricis, is, as far as we know, an uneven plain, on which numerous hills, sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and sometimes in ranges, rise to a moderate height, commonly with a gentle ascent. generally of small extent. The plain is at an elevation of from 2000 to 2500 ft., and the hills rise above it only a few hundred, and perhaps never more than 1000 ft. The valleys descend towards the S., where they approach the Serra dos Vertentes, a few hundred feet below the level of the plain, but farther to the N. still more. The surface of the plain, as well as of the hills, is in some places covered with sand, and in others with bare sandstone rocks, but it is generally clothed with a coarse grass, bushes, and single standing trees. In summer these trees and bushes shed their leaves, and as the grass in most places is withered at the same time, the country has a dismal aspect. But the valleys along the watercourse have a much more fertile soil, and here the high trees and thick foliage which cover the maritime districts occur again. These valleys are adapted to culture and for raising nearly all the products of the coast. The plains yield only pasture for cattle. straight line This plain is drained by four rivers of considerable extent, the S. Francesco, the Tocantins, the Xingu, and the Tapajos. The upper branches of the S. Francesco rise on the N. declivity of the Serra dos Vertentes about 3000 ft. above the sea, and between 21° and 20° S. lat. They are principally two; the Paraopeba, and that more properly called the S. Francesco, which unite after a course of above 150 m. in about 19° 20' S. lat., where their level is 1897 ft. above the sea. The riv, then flows in a nearly due N. direction to its junction with the Rio das Velhas (S. of 17° S. lat.); but before reaching this point, it forms the cataracts of Pirapora. At the junction with the Rio das Velhas it is 1708 ft. above the sea. The Rio das Velhas rises in the neighbourhood of Villa Rica, on the N. declivities of the Serra Mantigueira, and runs upwards of 250 m. From this point the Francesco continues to flow N. with a slight declination to the E., and its current is much less rapid. At Ioazeiro, 7° of lat. from its junction with the Rio das Velhas, it is still 1000 ft. above the sea, so that in a space measuring in nearly 500 m., it has only a fall of about 700 ft. It has here numerous windings, and is navigable down to Vargem Redonda, where the navigation is interrupted by several falls. In all this course it is not joined by any considerable tributary, and on its banks there extend for about 250 m. salt steppes, in which the mineral appears in the form of an efflorescence, and is collected by the inh. Vargem Redonda is about 300 m. below Ioazeiro, following the course of the riv. Not far from this place the riv. is narrowed by high rocky cliffs on both sides, runs with great rapidity, and forms several falls, of which the Cachoeira de Affonso, the most considerable, is said to be 50 ft. in perpendicular height. The cataracts and rapids occupy a space of nearly 70 m. and terminate at the Aldea do Caninde, whence a road leads to Vargem Redonda for the transport of merchandise into the interior of Brazil. From the Aldea do Caninde to its mouth, the riv. runs still about 200 m., and its navigation is not interrupted, but the current is rapid. Though a deep riv. in the interior of the continent, the Rio de S. Francesco enters the sea by two comparatively shallow mouths of unequal size, of which the N. and the larger is nearly 2 m. wide, but with so little depth, that only vessels of 60 tons' burden can enter it at high water, and must wait for the full tides to go out. The tide ascends it about 50 m., and it rises at Villa de Pinedo, where the riv. is about 1 m. wide, 3 ft. at full and change. The inundations are considerable, especially above the falls. The riv. begins to rise in Nov., and continues rising till Feb. Being skirted in most places by low and level tracts, its waters cover the country along its banks to the distance of 15 or 20 m., and in some places it penetrates still farther by means of some channels, by which the adjacent hills are divided from one another. The current during this period is so rapid in the middle of the riv., that the barges make nearly 100 m. in 24 hours down the stream. These inundations fertilize the country, and are particularly favourable to the cultivation of the sugar-cane. The pop on its banks is increasing rapidly. The whole course of may be compared with the Volga. the Rio de S. Francesco may be above 1300 m., and it The Rio Tocantins is divided from the Rio de S. Franland, which towards the upper branches of the riv., and also cesco, not by a chain of high mountains, but by a tabletowards its confluence with the Araguay, is overtopped by groups of hills of considerable height. The upper branches of the Tocantins rise in the Montes dos Pyrineos and in the Serra Doirada, both portions of the Serra dos Vertentes. In the Serra Doirada rises the Urubu, which is considered as the true source of the riv., and after a course of 70 m., joins the Rio Almas, which is not inferior to it, and descends from the Montes dos Pyrineos. The riv. preserves the name of Rio Almas to its confluence with the Maranhão, which joins it 90 m. farther down. The Maranhão rises in lake Formosa, which is 15 m. in length, and two in width, and flows to the W. and then to the N. Hence the united riv. is called Maranhão, to its junction with the Paranatinga, about 140 m. lower down (12° 20′). The Paranatinga is formed by the junction of two considerable riv., the Paranam and the Palma, the former of which flows nearly 300 m. Hence the riv. is called Tocantins, and becomes navigable at the Porto Real de Pontal, where it is 374 fathoms wide. The number of its affluents lower down is great, but none of them is very considerable, except the Rio Araguay, which joins it at about 5° S. lat. Before the Tocantins arrives at this point, its navigation is interrupted by some cataracts, between 70 and 6, among which the most considerable are the Cachoeira de S. Bartolomeo or das tres Barras, and the Cachoeira de S. Antonio. After its junction with the Rio Araguay the Tocantins flows between rocks and cliffs, forming many rapids and small cataracts, and this part of its course is called the channel of Taniri. Issuing from this channel, it has near Itaboca (3° 30') more considerable cataracts, which rise above one another like terraces, and then_tae riv. enters the low country skirting the Amazonas. Its whole course is in a N. direction: at about 1° 30' S. lat. it unites with the S. branch of the Rio das Amazonas, and takes the name of Rio da Parà. At the point of junction is an island, about 15 m. long, and low and flat, called Uararahy, which divides the mouth of the Tocantins into two arms; of which the E. is called Bahia de Marapatá, and the W. Bahia de Limoeiro: the width of the riv. is here upwards of 15 m. The Rio da Para, which divides the isl. of Marajo or Ioanes from the continent, widens in its progress to the N. still more, and may be above 60 m. where it falls into the sea (about 0° 20′ S. lat). The whole cource of the Tocantins is at least 1500 miles. since it has been ascertained that it may be navigated with less danger and difficulty than the Rio Madeira. Since 1812, it has been the road of communication between Parà and the European settlements on the banks of the Guapore, the Paraguay and the St. Lourenço. The Rio Tapajos is formed by the confluence of two considerable riv., the Iuruena and the Rio dos Arinos. The Iuruena rises near the point where the Serra dos Paricis divides into two branches, one of which runs N., and the other, the Serra Agoapehy, S., near 14° S. lat. It runs for upwards of 200 m. due N., and then inclines to the E. to meet the Rio dos Arinos. The number of its affluents is very great, and at the confluence the Iuruena is the larger riv., but it has not yet been navigated. The Rio dos Arinos rises farther to the E., near the sources of the Paraguay, and runs first N.E. and then N. to the junction with the Rio Preto, which is the only branch of the riv. which is at present navigated. After this junction the Rio dos Arinos flows N.W., nearly to its confluence with the Iuruena, about 90° S. lat. Hence the united riv. is called Tapajos, and flows N.E. forming two cataracts, the Cachoeiras de S. João da Barra and de S. Carlos. At the latter the course of the riv. is changed, and flows hence to the N.N.E. The largest of its cataracts, called Salto Grande, occurs at about 7° 30', and is said to be 30 ft. perpendicular height. Between 50 and 6° is another fall, called Cachoeira de Maranhão, which likewise interrupts the navigation, The remainder of its course is through the low country along the Rio Amazonas. This riv. is joined by numerous tributaries, especially from the right. It falls into the Amazonas near Santarem, where it is about 4 m. wide. On the banks of the Iuruena, and W. to the N. branch of the Serra Paricis, extends a sandy desert, called Campos dos Paricis. The surface is formed by long-backed ridges of sandy hills, parallel to one another, and divided by longitudinal valleys. The soil consists of sand, so loose that beasts of burden can hardly proceed; and it is nearly destitute of vegetation, except where springs issue from the ground. The extent of this desert, which may be considered as occupying the centre of South America, has not yet been ascertained. The climate of the Campos Paricis has not yet been The Araguay, the largest tributary of the Tocantins, described. That of the table-land which extends to the E. rises on the N. declivity of the Serra Seiada, about 18 S. of it differs in many respects from the climate of the coast. lat., where it is called Bonito, which name is changed into The rain begins in October, with heavy thunder-storms, that of Rio Grande, after it has united with the Rio Bar- and lasts till April, but it is less in quantity where the reiros and Rio Cajapo. Its waters are lower down in-country extends in nearly level plains. The medium heat creased by those of the Rio Claro, Rio Vermelho, Rio Ti- is stated by Freyreiss to be only 654° Fahrenheit, but it often zoiras, and Rio Crixa. All these riv. flowing from the rises to 100° at noon. The difference between the temperaS.E. join the Araguay on the right, and none of the three ture of the day and night frequently amounts to 30°. In last runs less than 200 m. By means of the Vermelho, the winter the air is serene, and there is no rain; but somemerchandise has been carried from Villa Boa, the capital times in the month of June or July slight frost occurs, espeof Goyaz to Parà. About 30 m. from the mouth of the cially towards the Serra dos Vertentes, in the S. districts, Crixa, the river divides itself-in 12° 30′ into two branches which destroy the crops of the bananas, sugar, coffee, and nearly equal, which reunite in 9° 36', enclosing the isl. of S. even cotton. Thunder-storms prevail only in the rainy seaAnna, perhaps the largest river island in the world. It is son, and are sometimes accompanied by hailstones. The more than 200 m. in length, and of considerable width. The winds are irregular at all seasons, and frequently bring W. arm preserves the name of Araguay, and the E. takes dense fogs. that of Furo; barges generally go through the latter; but both contain small falls and rapids. The branch called Araguay receives, about 40 m. N. of the S. point of the island of S. Anna, the Rio dos Mortes, which runs nearly 300 m. At about 5° the Araguay joins the Tocantins after a course of above 1000 miles. The Rio Araguay may be considered as the boundary of our knowledge of the interior of Brazil, the countries drained by the Xingù, and Tapajos being almost unknown. Though the rivers have been ascended the greatest part of their course, no European families have settled in this country, and it has not been traversed by land. The Rio Xingù probably rises in the Serra dos Vertentes, about 15° S. lat., but its sources as well as its upper course have not been visited. It does not appear that any of its tributaries are considerable. Between 5 and 4° S. lat. its bed is narrowed and traversed by a chain of rocks, and thus the cataracts are produced which occur in this part of the river. These rocks make the riv. form a large bend to the S. and E., though in general the direction of its course is to the N., with numerous windings. The remainder of its course lies through the low plain on the banks of the Rio Amazonas, which it joins at Porto de Moz, where it is about 4 m. wide. The Rio Tapajos has lately risen to greater importance, The table land of Brazil is separated from the Andes of Bolivia by a large and extensive plain, traversed by those streams which by their junction form the Rio Madeira. This plain may perhaps rise to the height of 1200 or 1500 ft.; the latter being the height which, according to the estimate of Martius, the country attains which forms the watershed between the Pilcomayo and Ubahy. A small portion only of this plain belongs to Brazil -the country extending along the W. declivity of the N. branch of the Serra Paricis on both banks of the Rio Guapore. A few scattered hills rise on the plain to a moderate elevation, and are divided from one another by extensive level tracts, mostly covered with high forest-trees, and here and there intersected by a few barren districts without trees and with little vegetation. The Rio Guaporé, called also Itenez, rises (14° 30' S. lat.) in the Serra dos Paricis, about 100 m. N.E. of Villa Bella, the capital of Matto Grosso, and at first runs S. parallel to the Rio Jaurà, a tributary of the Paraguay. It then turns W., and receives the waters of the Rio Alegre, a small but navigable tributary. In 1773 an unsuccessful attempt was made to unite this river by a canal with the Rio Agoapehy, which falls into the Jaurà. At the junction with this river the Guaporé turns to the N.N.W., and then to the W., where it is joined on the right by the large Rio Paraguay, and the still larger Ubahy. At the confluence with the latter it turns N., and |