that though these tribes agree so well in their external characters, they have all a different language, even if a tribe consists of only a few families, which is sometimes the case. It is true that most of these languages contain some common roots, but the relationship is not so close that one can be easily understood or learned because another is known. These tribes are still in a very low state of civilization, but they are not unacqainted with agriculture. With the exception of one tribe called the Muras, who live a wandering life, all the aborigines of Brazil cultivate the ground and plant the two kinds of mandioca, bananas and a species of palm trees. They have likewise divided their huntinggrounds, and marked these divisions by boundaries. Still they derive the greater part of their subsistence from the chace, the wild fruits of the forest, and from fishing. In some tribes the men and women go naked, in others the women have some clothing. Certain tribes are cannibals and eat their enemies, a fact well ascertained of the Botocudos in Espirito Santo. But modern writers do not state that they kill their parents or relations and eat them, like the Battas of Sumatra. Most of them seem to have a very imperfect idea of a Supreme Being, but they generally believe in an Evil Spirit. The number of these savage tribes probably exceeds 200 at least: Martius has enumerated 240; many of them consist of only one or two families. This is particularly the case with the tribes in the plain of the Amazonas to the N. of the riv., where the people live in a completely isolated state, and at great distances from one another. To the S. of that riv. the tribes are much more numerous, and often consist of several thousand individuals. The Mundrucus on the Tapajos are said to amount to 18,000, the Manhés to 16,000, the Guaïcurùs, in the plain of the Paraguay, to 12,000; the Cajapos on the Paranahyba, an affluent of the Paranà, to 8000; and the Cherentes on the Araguay, also to 8000.

All the aborigines, who lead an independent and roving life, are called in Brazil Indianos bravos, or Gentios, in contradistinction to the Indianos mansos (domesticated Indians), who have settled among, or in the neighbourhood of the Europeans. It has always been the policy of the government to induce a number of Indians to live in one place, and to accustom them to agriculture. But these measures have seldom produced the desired effect, or if they have, it has been observed that the Indians wasted away under numerous diseases, or returned at last to their former habits of life in the deep forests. Still there is a considerable number of these domesticated Indians, especially on the coast, where they perhaps amount to 400,000 individuals, as Freyreiss conjectures. They were brought together by the Jesuits, and induced to settle in villages, called in Portuguese aldeas, where they were accustomed to agricultural labour. But on the suppression of that order, the Indians left their abodes and returned to the woods, where they now cultivate a piece of ground, hardly sufficient to give them a bare subsistence, and employ their time chiefly in fishing and hunting. Their huts are better than those of the savage tribes, and they profess Christianity. The foreign settlers are either Portuguese, or negroes from Africa who have been brought over as slaves, and for the most part are still in a state of slavery. The Portuguese and the negro have intermingled with one another, and with the aborigines. The descendants of Europeans and negroes are called Mulattos; those of Europeans and aborigines, Mameluccos; and those of the negroes and Indians, Caribocos. The offspring of the Mulattos and negroes, who are called Cubras, are also very numerous. The descendants of the negroes are called in Brazil Creoles. The Mameluccos are valued for their quiet disposition and their honesty.

The whole population of Brazil is variously estimated, from three and a half to five or six millions; but the different independent aboriginal tribes, which still possess more than half the surface of the country, are not included in this account. It is conjectured that the negroes may amount to about two millions, of which number more than three-fourths are slaves; and the descendants of Europeans to somewhat more. The remainder are Mulattos, Mameluccos, Caribocos, Cubras, &c.

Brazil is divided into nineteen provinces, of which fifteen are situated along the ocean, and four in the interior. Along the coast, beginning from the S., are the following provinces:

1. S. Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul comprehends the

sandy plain that stretches along the shore from the boun dary of the republic of Uraguay Oriental to the Rio Mambituba, a small riv. which enters the sea S. of the Morro de S. Marta, and also the whole country between this plain and the Rio Uraguay. This prov. is rich in cattle and horses, produces the grains of Europe and rice, as well as most European fruits; vines also succeed very well. In the most N. districts along the Rio Uraguay there are still a few feeble tribes of independent Indians.

S. Pedro, the only harbour of this prov., is situated some miles from the mouth of the Rio S. Pedro, on a sandy tongue of land. As vessels cannot approach near it, they remain on the E. bank of the riv. at a place called S. Joze. S. Pedro contains between 3000 and 4000 inhabitants, and carries on an active trade with Rio Janeiro. Porto Alegre, the capital of the prov., situated on a bay formed by the Rio Jacuhy, is well built, and contains between 7000 and 8000 inh.

2. S. Catharina comprehends the hilly country along the coast between the Rio Mambituba and the Rio Sahy, which separates it from S. Paolo, and also the island of S. Catharina: it lies between 29° 20' and 25° 50'. Here the grains and fruits of Europe are cultivated together with those of a hotter climate. It does not appear that there are any free native tribes in this prov., but they sometimes enter it from the W. side of the mountain-ridge. There are some good harbours on the coast, but the most frequented is that formed by the isl. of S. Catharina. The isl. of S. Catharina is above 30 m. long from N. to S., and from 4 to 8 m. wide; its surface presents a succession of hill and dale, and a great part of it is covered with fine trees; it abounds with water, and has some fine lakes. It is separated from the mainland by a strait, which in its narrowest part, where it is formed by two projecting capes, is not more than 200 fathoms wide. These capes divide the strait in two large ports, almost equal in size, and both very safe. The N. and larger port is 10 m. wide, and deep enough for ships of war; it is one of the best ports in South America. The town of Nossa Senhora do Desterro, the capital of the prov., is on the W. side of the isl. upon a bay, a little to the E.S.E. of the narrowest part of the strait. It has between 3000 and 4000 inh., and some small manufactures of linen and cotton cloth, and of pottery. Many spermaceti whales are taken in the strait, and the oil is prepared in several places of the isl. and the adjacent mainland. Laguna, on the continent, has a harbour for coasting vessels, and exports grain, timber, and fish, which abound along this coast. S. Francesco, near the boundary of the prov. of S. Paolo, and on an isl., has also a harbour for smacks, and exports grain and a great quantity of timber and cordage.

3. S. Paolo extends over the greater part of the plain of the Paranà, namely, that part of it which lies on the E. of the Rio Paranà, and over the Campos da Vacaria, and the sea-coast from the Rio Sahy, to the bay called Angra dos Reys. On the table-lands cattle and horses are raised in great numbers, and grain, mandioca, and rice are cultivated and exported. On the coast, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and a little coffee, are raised. The W. districts, along the Rio Paranà, from the mouth of the Rio Tiete to that of the Iguassu, are still in possession of independent tribes; and the country to the N. of the Tiete is exposed to incursions from the Cajapos. This prov. has many good harbours for coasting vessels, and some thriving towns along the coast.

Iguape, with 6500 inh., exports great quantities of rice. Santos, the port of the town of S. Paolo, to which an excellent road leads over the mountains, is on the N. side of an isl., called S. Vincente, in the bay of Santos, and has a harbour capable of receiving men-of-war. It has above 7000 inh., and carries on a very considerable trade. On the same isl., but on the S. shore is the town of S. Vincente, the first establishment of the Portuguese in Brazil; it is now only inhabited by fishermen. S. Sebastião, farther to the E., is on the strait of Toque, which is more than 2 m. wide, and separates the isl. of S. Sebastião from the continent. The town has a harbour for coasting vessels, 4500 inh., and exports timber and grain. Besides the town of S. Paolo [S. PAOLO], which contains between 30,000 and 40,000 inh., there are two other considerable places in the interior, Sorocaba and Curytiba. Sorocaba, situated to the W. of S. Paolo, has 11,000 inh., and considerable trade in cattle and grain. In its neighbourhood is the Morro de Arasoyaba, which is several miles in circuit, and consists entirely of iron ore. Curytiba, on the N. skirts of the Cam

12. Searà, or Cearà, extends from the Serra Appody to the Serra Hibiapaba, which terminates between the riv. Camucim and Parnahyba, in hills not far distant from the sea, and separates it from Piauhy. It is computed to measure, from N. to S., above 300 m. The surface of this prov. is generally uneven, but the valleys are wide and not deep; the elevations are not great, except towards the S. and W. boundary-line. The soil is in general sandy, arid and sterile, except on the broad summits of the mountains, where it is rich and covered with forests. In the latter districts grain and mandioca are cultivated. Along the rivers cotton is grown. The district about the upper branches of the Rio Jaguaribe, the principal riv. of the prov., is the most fertile and populous. This prov. often suffers much from long, droughts. The descendants of the aborigines are numerous, especially in the less fertile districts. The shores, which in some parts are steep, in others flat and sandy, have no ports except for small coasting vessels.

Searà, the capital, is situated near the beach, about 7 m. N. W. of the mouth of the riv. Seara. It has no harbour; about 10,000 inh., and very little commerce. Aracaty, on the E. bank of the Jaguaribe, 8 m. above its mouth, is the most commercial and populous town in the prov. It has 26,000 inh., and exports cotton and hides in large quantities. The tide, which runs 30 m. up the riv., facilitates the navigation. Sobral, not far from the bank of the Camucim, the second town in commerce and pop., is about 70 m. from the sea. Its port is Granja, on the left bank of the Camucim, 20 m. from the sea.

13. Piauhy has only a coast of about 60 m. between the Serra Hibiapaba and the mouth of the Rio Parnahyba, which riv. divides it from Maranhão; but it extends 400 m. inland to the source of that riv. This prov. is only hilly on the boundary-line of Searà and Pernambuco; it is particularly adapted to the breeding of cattle, the pastures in the southern portion of the plain of the Parnahyba being extensive and excellent. Besides cattle, cotton is exported, and, in addition to other grains, rice and mandioca are particularly cultivated. Independent tribes still exist in the S. district, between the rivers Parnahyba and Gorguea. It has no port, except that formed by the E. mouth of the Rio Parnahyba, called Higuarassu. Oeyras, the capital, is situated on a small riv., which, three m. lower down, falls into the Caninde, a tributary of the Parnahyba. It is a small town with 1700 inh. Parnahyba lies on the Higuarassu, the E. and most considerable branch of the Parnahyba, 15 m. from the sea, and carries on an active trade in hides and cotton. Its pop. amounts to 2600.

14. Maranhão comprehends the western portion of the plain of the Parnahyba, extending along the coast 350 m. from the western mouth of the Rio Parnahyba to that of the Turyvassu, and nearly 400 m. inland. It is more hilly than Pianhy, especially in the S. districts, but towards the sea extremely productive in rice and cotton, which are exported in large quantities. All the S. and central districts and most of the W., forming all together perhaps more than half the prov., are still occupied by independent tribes. It has some good harbours, the best of which are the bays of S. Jozé and of St. Marcos, formed by the isl. of Maranhão, which is 20 m. long from N. E. to S. W., and 15 m. its greatest width. To the W. of the bay of S. Marcos, the shores are skirted by a series of small and low islands up to the bay of Turyvassu, the limits of the prov. on the side of Parà. Besides the capital, S. Luiz de Maranhão [MARANHAO], it contains two considerable places, Alcantara and Cachias. Alcantara, on the W. of the bay of S. Marcos, which has a port capable of receiving large coasting vessels, is a large well-built town, and carries on a considerable trade in the produce of the country. Cachias is situated on the Itapicurù, where that riv. begins to be navigable for large barges, in a district which is productive in cotton : it is a considerable thriving town. Its pop. may amount to 10,000.

15. Parà is the largest of the prov. of Brazil, extending from the Rio Turyvassu, W. nearly to the isl. of Tupinambarana, along the S. bank of the Amazonas: and farther to the S. to the E. banks of the Rio Madeira. This portion of Parà comprehends the greater part of the plain of the Rio das Amazonas, and also considerable portions of the tableland; nearly the whole of it is still in the possession of independent tribes, the European settlements being very small and at great distances from one another. They only occur on the banks of the Rio das Amazonas, and at the mouth of

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its larger affluents. On the banks of the Tocantins and Madeira, which two rivers have been navigated for some time, there are also a few feeble settlements, but none on those of the Xingu and Tapajos, nor on the rivers between the Madeira and Hyabary. As some attempts have been recently made to navigate the Tapajos, it is probable that new settlements may be made on that riv. In this portion of the prov. of Parà, is the capital, Parà [PARA], and the following places :-Braganza or Cayté, on the banks of the riv. Cayte, about 20 m. from the sea, is an old town and a considerable place; the port is often resorted to by the coasting vessels which navigate between Maranhão and Parà. Cameta, the most considerable t. next to Parà, is situated on the left bank of the Tocantins, above 30 m. from its mouth. It has considerable trade with Parà and the prov. of Goyaz, and about 8000 inh. Santarem, near the mouth of the Tapajos, is the depôt of the numerous articles of commerce collected in the forests around it and farther up the Amazonas; it is also visited by barges which navigate towards the country farther W. It has above 2000 inh.

The prov. of Parà comprehends also a considerable tract N. of the Amazonas, from the E. coast to the Rio Nhamunda. This tract, which is considered as part of Guiana, is almost entirely occupied by independent tribes. The few European settlements only occur on the sea-coast and on the banks of the Rio Amazonas. The most important are:-Macapa, at the mouth of the can. of Braganza, the principal branch of the Rio Amazonas, opposite the Archipelago of isl. which that great riv. forms here. It is a considerable town with a fortress, and carries on an active commerce in the produce of the country. Its pop. is above 2000. Montalegre, situated on a small isl. in the riv. Gurupatuba, 7 m. from its junction with the Amazonas, is a considerable place, and has some trade. Obydos, formerly Panxis, is near the E. mouth of the Rio Oriximina, which joins the Amazonas. In this place, at the distance of about 700 m. from the sea, the Amazonas runs in one channel, about 900 fathoms wide, and up to this point the tide ascends. It has some commerce and nearly 2000 inh.

Between the town of Macapa and Cape do Norte a narrow channel extends along the coast, which is formed by some islands that line the coast at a short distance from it; in this channel the current called pororòca, is most strongly felt. At full and change, the tide, instead of gradually rising in six hours, attains its greatest height in a few minutes, and is accompanied with a terrific noise. [Bore.]

The isl. of Marajò or Ilha dos Joannes is the largest isl. of Brazil, extending above 90 m. from N. to S., and at least 120 from E. to W. It perhaps contains about 10,000 sq. m. The N. shores are washed by the sea, the W. partly by the principal branch of the Rio Amazonas and partly by the can. of Tagipuru, which unites the great riv. to the Rio das Bocas, a fresh-water bay, at the E. extremity of which the Tocantins has its embouchure. This bay and the Rio do Parà enclose the isl. on the S. and E. Its surface is even, and its own numerous rivers, some of which have a course of 70 or 80 m., inundate, in the rainy season, considerable tracts on the W. and S. side. About one-half of the isl., consisting of that part which borders on the ocean and the Rio de Parà, is nearly without wood and pastured by great herds of cattle and horses; the other half is covered with high trees and abundance of underwood. The pop. is probably not much above 10,000.

16. S. Jozé do Rio Negro, which is not much less than Para, extends likewise on both sides of the Amazonas; on the N. side between the Rio Nhamunda and the limits of the rep. of Ecuador; on the S. between the Rio Madeira and the Hyabary, the limit towards Peru. The isl. of Tupinambarana is included in this pro., and also the country S. and E. of it. The Eurpoean settlements here are still less numerous and less important, and are only found on the Rio Negro and its tributary, Rio Branco, on the Yapurà, and the Madeira, except a very few on the Rio Amazonas. The country between the Madeira and Hyabary has never been visited by Europeans. N. of the Amazonas are many small tribes, and S. of it the numerous tribes of the Mundrucús, Mahés, Muras, and others. Barra do Rio Negro, the capital, is situated on the banks of the Rio Negro, about 4 m. from its mouth, and contains above 3000 inh. Tabatinga, on the Amazonas, situated near the boundaryline of Ecuador, is a very small place.

The isl. of Tupinambarana, which is above 150 m. long, lies near the S. bank of the Amazonas, from the mouth of

amounts to 550,000 bags annually, being ten times the quantity exported from all the other Brazilian ports. It is sent to all parts of Europe, chiefly to Antwerp, Hamburg, and Trieste, as well as to the United States. Next to coffee, sugar is an important article of exportation, being from 16,000 to 18,000 cases annually: it goes almost entirely to Europe, and chiefly to Hamburg; but when European prices are low, part of it has occasionally been sent to Buenos Ayres and round Cape Horn. The smaller articles are hides, brought from Rio Grande do Sul and S. Paolo, rum, dye-woods, and drugs: the first two are considerable.

Bahia, or S. Salvador, is the principal port for the portation of sugar, which annually amounts to from 50,000 to 60,000 cases. It also exports 40,000 bags of cotton, some tobacco, rum, rice, cacao, rosewood, and drugs. The sugar goes principally to Hamburg and Trieste, and the cotton to England, a small portion only being sent to France. To Lisbon and Oporto are sent part of the sugar, tobacco, rum, and cacao, and all the rice; and to the coast of Africa much rum and the inferior quality of tobacco. Pernambuco supplies cotton, sugar, and Brazil-wood. The cotton, amounting to above 100,000 bags annually, comes mostly to England; the sugar being less fit for refining, is distributed in small portions to many markets: it amounts to about 15,000 cases. The Brazil-wood of best quality is found in the neighbourhood of Pernambuco, and is exported on account of the government, which has a monopoly in it. Though this article is also found in the provs. of Rio Janeiro and of Bahia, it is of a quality so inferior to that grown near Cape S. Roque as to bear no comparison in value. The smaller articles are hides, cocoa-nuts, ipecacuanha, and other drugs.

Maranhão exports chiefly cotton, rice, tapioca, hides, and horns, with isinglass and some drugs. The cotton, amounting to about 50,000 bags, goes chiefly to England (36,000), and the remainder to Portugal and Spain. The rice and tapioca (mandiocca flour) is sent to Portugal. The hides (100,000) are divided between England and the United States: France and Belgium receive only a small number. What is called Maranhão cacao is the produce of Parà, and is not now exported at all from Maranhão.

Parà, though a larger town than S. Pedro and Santos, is a place of much less trade: its exports consist of a greater variety of articles. Cacao is the chief article; next to it India-rubber, then isinglass, hides, cotton, castanha-nuts, and many kinds of drugs. In some years a very little sugar has been exported, but in general both Maranhão and Parà require supplies of that article from the S. provinces.

Foreign vessels have begun to enter the ports of Searà, Aracaty, and Parahyba, but the commerce of these towns is comparatively insignificant: from the first are brought some few cargoes of cotton, and from the two last sugar and

cotton.

On the whole, nearly all the sugar of Brazil finds a market at Hamburg, Trieste, and Portugal; the rice is, with a trifling exception, sent to Portugal; the coffee is divided between the continent of Europe and the United States, the latter having increased their imports to nearly one-third of the whole quantity in late years. Almost all the cotton, rosewood, India-rubber, and isinglass is brought to England. The hides are distributed between England, the continent of Europe, and the United States. The tobacco is sent to Portugal and to Gibraltar, previous to being smuggled into Spain; and to the coast of Africa. The rum, which is exported, finds a market chiefly on the African coast, and in some ports of Portugal.

The annual exports from Brazil may be estimated at about 5,000,000l., of which nearly one-half is exported to England by British vessels; of the remainder about three-fourths go to the continent of Europe in Swedish, Danish, Portuguese, and Hamburg vessels, and the rest is carried to America.

The imports into Brazil may likewise be estimated at about 5,000,000l. More than four-fifths are brought from England and its colonies in English vessels. The most important article is cotton fabrics, which amount to nearly 1,500,000%; next to these, woollen articles, linen, brass and copper ware, butter and cheese, iron and steel, wrought and unwrought, hardware and cutlery, hats, arms and ammunition, soap and candles, and tin. Many cargoes of cod are sent from the British fisheries in North America; and from the British colonies potashes, India cotton piece-goods, silks and spices. Nearly the whole of this commerce is carried on by vessels from London and Liverpool.

The maritime intercourse between Brazil and the neighbouring republics is not considerable. The most active is that carried on with Buenos Ayres, to which sugar, tapioca, and some other agricultural products are sent, and whenee the Paraguay tea or maté is brought back.

Formerly an active trade was carried on with the coasts of Africa, whence, in some years, 40,000 slaves were imported, chiefly from Benguela, Cabinda, and Mozambique. But the slave trade has been abolished, and since that time the traffic has probably much decreased. From Mozambique are imported gold-dust, ivory, pepper, Columbo root, ebony, and some East India goods; from the western coasts of Africa, wax, palm-oil, ivory, ground-nuts, sulphur, and some gum-arabic; from the Cape Verde islands, sulphur, gum-arabic, and salt. The intercourse with Goa and Macao is not great. From these places are brought cotton piecegoods, fine muslins, and printed cottons, silk stuffs, porcelain, tea, India ink, cinnamon, pepper, and some camphor. For some years after the opening of the Brazilian ports to free trade, nearly all the commerce was with England and Portugal; but on the general peace in Europe in 1814, the northern ports of the continent began to participate in it. As almost all the most important products of Brazil are excluded from consumption in England by enormous duties, other countries are gradually, though slowly, supplanting the British in the Brazil trade.

Probably the British trade with Brazil is on the whole greater now than ever it was, but it by no means comprises the same proportion of the whole of the Brazilian commerce. The whole trade of Brazil has certainly increased very considerably, and though the English share in this trade has also increased, yet its proportion to the whole is not what it once was. For some years British shipping carried nearly the whole produce of Brazil, but now it carries less than two-thirds. North American, Hamburg, Swedish, and other flags have entered into competition with the British, and so successfully, that the Americans are annually ac quiring a larger share of the trade. The principal cause of this change is that the bulky articles, such as Brazilian sugar, coffee, and cacao, being loaded with heavy duties in England, are consumed wholly in other countries, and only brought to England for re-exportation; but by carrying these articles direct to the countries of their consumption, much expense is saved, and in doing this foreigners employ their own vessels. The only chance the British have for securing the important carrying trade in Brazilian produce would be by a material reduction of the duties in England.

History.-Brazil was discovered in the last year of the fifteenth century. The voyages of Columbus and Vasco de Gama, who first sailed across extensive seas, had taught navigators to adopt the practice of entering at once upon the open ocean. Accordingly Pedro Alvares de Cabral, who, after the return of Vasco de Gama, was sent by the king of Portugal with a large navy to the East Indies, directed his course from the Cape Verde islands to the S.W., and was carried by the equatorial current so far to the W. that he found himself very unexpectedly in sight of land in 10 S. lat. This country was Brazil, which he saw first on the 3rd of May, 1500. He sailed along the coast as far as Porto Seguro (16° S. lat.), where he landed and took possession. He sent an account of his discovery to Lisbon, and continued his voyage to India. The king afterwards sent Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, to examine the country, who took a rapid survey of nearly the whole of its shores, and upon his return published an account of it, with a map. To this publication this navigator is indebted for the honour of having given his Christian name to the new continent.

Vespucci, and others who were sent somewhat later, re ported that the country was not cultivated, and did not offer any great commercial advantages, but that they had found

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