A second attack upon Hennebon marked the year 1342. | in a treaty in which he stipulated to give aid to the French Before the end of the year the countess of Montfort crossed in the war against the English. Against the conditions of the sea into England to beg further succours, and was re- this treaty he made however a private yet formal protest turning with a fleet of 46 vessels, when near Guernsey she (A.D. 1381). The next trouble in which Jean involved himfell in with a French fleet of 22 great ships manned with self was a dispute with the priesthood. He then renewed Genoese seamen, and having on board 1000 men at arms his quarrel with Clisson, now constable of France, whom he under the orders of Charles de Blois himself. The battle trepanned basely under the pretence of friendship, and was terminated by a tempest which separated the fleets, but would have put to death (A. D. 1387). He is also strongly four English ships were taken. The countess landed with suspected of having instigated Pierre de Craon to attempt her reinforcements, and the kings of England and France the assassination of the constable in the streets of Paris arrived in Bretagne with hostile forces; but early in the (A.D. 1392). The influence of Clisson, who was wounded, year 1343 a suspension of arms between the two potentates though not mortally in the attempt, would probably have was agreed on, and the Bretons alone, with some merce- led the young King Charles VI. to make war on the duke, naries, were left to carry on the war. In 1344 the Montfort had not the insanity of the king interrupted the design. party was strengthened by the severity of the king of France, Clisson himself waged war against the duke: the contest who, without form of trial, put to death a Breton lord, Olivier was furious, and lasted till A.D. 1395, when peace was conde Clisson, on a charge of traitorously forming an alliance cluded. Jean de Montfort died A.D. 1399. with England. The widow of Clisson, on hearing of this, gathered some troops, surprised a castle held by the friends of Charles de Blois, and distinguished herself by her exploits in a war in which, more than in any other, women emulated the warlike fame and courage of men.

In 1345 Jean de Montfort managed to escape from the Louvre, after a confinement of three years. He landed in England, did homage to Edward as his suzerain, obtained aid and returned to Bretagne. He died however shortly after, and the rights of his son, a mere child, were bravely sustained by the Countess Jeanne.

In 1347 Charles de Blois, who had besieged Roche Derrien near Treguier, was surprised and taken prisoner by an inferior body of English troops. His wife, Jeanne de Penthièvre, sustained his cause with a valour equal to that of the countess of Montfort, and the hatred of the Bretons for the English induced many of them to embrace her party. In 1356 Charles recovered his liberty by ransom, and renewed the war, which was carried on for seven years longer, during which no decisive action took place. In 1363 the young count de Montfort attained his majority, and did homage for the duchy of Bretagne to his powerful protector the king of England. In 1363 Charles de Blois and Jean de Montfort signed a treaty by which Bretagne was to be divided into two parts, having Rennes and Nantes for their respective capitals; but the reproaches of his wife, Jeanne of Penthievre, who told him that she had married him to defend her inheritance, not to yield up half of it, determined Charles to break it. The following year witnessed the decisive battle of Aurai, in which Montfort, Chandos, and Olivier de Clisson overthrew the army of Charles de Blois, though he was aided by the bravery and skill of the celebrated Bertrand Duguesclin. Charles de Blois himself fell in the action, and the treaty of Guerande in 1365 secured the duchy of Bretagne to the house of Montfort.

Although Jean de Montfort (Jean IV.) had no competitor for the duchy, his possession of it was neither quiet nor uninterrupted. His own violent disposition precluded repose. The course pointed out to him by the gratitude due to England for past services and his present duty of fidelity to France was neutrality; but the duke went beyond this: he formed an alliance with the English, which necessarily drew down upon him the hostility of France, while his liberality to the English individually disgusted the barons, and the admission of English garrisons alienated the towns of his duchy. He quarrelled with Clisson, who soon after left his service for that of the French king. A French army under Duguesclin, now constable of France, himself a Breton, entered Bretagne (A.D. 1370), and the duke, abandoned by his subjects, was obliged to take refuge in England. In 1373 he returned, but not finding any support, again retired to England. The ambition of Charles V. of France brought about his restoration: that prince procured the confiscation of the duchy (A.D. 1378) by a sentence of the court of peers, and violated all the forms of such proceedings in his manner of conducting the process. He further seized upon the duchy himself instead of transferring it to the next heirs, and attempted to establish the Gabelle or salt tax. This violation of their independence aroused the Bretons: the duke, lately the object of general dislike, was recalled and received with the warmest affection (A.D. 1380). He might however soon have incurred another expulsion through his unwise partiality for the English, but Charles V., who might have taken advantage of the rising discontent of the Bretons, was dead; and Jean made his peace with the government of his successor, yet a minor,

Jean V., son of the late duke, came to the duchy a minor. He had been married while yet a child to a daughter of the French King Charles VI., and upon attaining his majority was involved in that perplexed scene of disturbance which marked the reign of the unhappy maniac. It would be needless to follow him through the various changes of party, from Armagnac to Bourguignon, from French to English, to which unsteadiness or perfidy led him, by which however he preserved Bretagne from war until the year 1425-26, when it was partly ravaged by the duke of Bedford, regent of France for the English party, who was enraged at Jean for having deserted the English interest for that of the Dauphin. Bretagne derived some advantage from this war, by the settlement of many families who left other parts of France to take refuge in this more secure country, and the acquisition of the cloth manufacture which was brought by some Norman emigrants. Two other incidents mark the reign of this duke. In 1420 he was ensnared and taken prisoner by the count of Penthièvre and his brothers, princes of the house of Blois, grandsons of that Clisson who had himself been entrapped in a similar manner by the late duke. Jean obtained however his release, and the event led in its consequences to the ruin of the house of Blois. In 1440 Gilles de Laval, Maréchal de Retz, a principal Breton lord, was condemned for sorcery and selling himself to the devil. Reduced by prodigality to ruin he had sought to recover wealth by alchemy and sorcery. He was reproached with the murder of many wives whom he had successively married, and of more than a hundred children. He was burned alive in the presence of the duke near Nantes. In the year 1442 Jean V. died.

Jean V. was succeeded by his son, François I. Gilles, younger brother of this prince, having quarrelled with him on the ground of the insufficiency of his inheritance, attempted to call in the English. The duke procured the aid of some French troops, by whom his brother was seized. He wished to bring him to trial before the states of Bretagne, but not succeeding, he at last had him smothered in prison after a captivity of nearly four years, A.D. 1450. When the death of Gilles became known, a cordelier, who had been his confessor, presented himself before the duke, and in an awful voice summoned him, on behalf of the dead prince, to appear forty days afterwards before the tribunal of God. The impression made by this prophecy led to its fulfilment; the duke died on the very day foretold, July, 1450. The history of his successors, Pierre II. and Artur III., presents no points of interest, save that Pierre, who was brother of François I. and of Gilles, caused the murderers of the latter to be put to death, except Artur de Montauban, contriver of the murder, who became a monk, and died archbishop of Bordeaux; and that Artur III., who, as count of Richemont (Richmond), had served with distinction in the French army, and had become constable of France, distinguished himself by his zeal against sorcerers. Never man,' says his historian, 'hated more bitterly all heresies, and sorcerers and sorceresses than he did; and clearly this appeared, for he caused more of them to be burned in France, in Poitou, and in Bretagne than any one else of his day.' Pierre II. held the duchy from 1450 to 1457; Arthur III. from 1457 to 1458.

The first part of the long ducal reign of François II. (1458-1488) coincided with the reign of the astute Louis XI., whose desire of repressing the enormous power of the great feudal nobles led him into frequent disputes and contests. In 1465 François entered into the confederacy of the nobles against the king, known by the title of The

league of the public good' (Ligue du bien public). The and the new king were designed to separate the crown of Bretons were too slow in their movements to take part in France from the ducal coronet of Bretagne, by providing the battle of Montlhéry, but they assisted in the blockade that the latter should descend to the second son, or in deof Paris, and took Pontoise and Evreux. The duke re- fault of a second son, to a daughter, so as to give to the proceived several concessions from the king in the treaty of St. vince a sovereign of its own. They had only two children, Maur which Louis was obliged to sign. The troubles of daughters; the elder was promised in marriage to a young France did not cease with this treaty; hostilities and in-prince of the house of Austria, afterwards celebrated as trigues continued, and François distinguished himself by the emperor Charles V., and was to have, as her dower, the facility with which he changed sides. This duke was Bretagne, Bourgogne, the county of Blois, and several posof a very feeble character, being ruled by his mistress An- sessions in Italy. Considerations of a public nature howtoinette de Magnelais, lady of Villequier; by his favourite ever set aside the marriage; and Louis, to prevent the disthe lord of Lescun; and by his minister Landois, the son of a memberment of the kingdom, broke the treaties in which tailor at Vitré. This last, a man of considerable talent and it had been arranged. The duchess Anne died A.D. 1514, boldness, provoked, as might be expected, the hatred of aged 37 years. Her daughter Claude was married a few the nobility of Bretagne, who at last rose in revolt; and the months after to the duke d'Angoulême, heir presumptive duke was obliged, by the defection of his forces, to give up to the French throne, which he ascended upon the death of the object of their hatred to his enemies, A.D. 1484 or 85. Louis XII. in 1515, under the title of François I.; and Landois was forthwith tried on many charges, condemned, shortly afterwards Claude ceded to her husband her rights and hung. In 1486 François allied himself with Maxi- over Bretagne during her lifetime. It was not however milian, king of the Romans, who had married the heiress till several years after her death, which was in 1524, that (since dead) of the late duke of Bourgogne; with the king Bretagne was formally united to France: this union took and queen of Navarre; the dukes of Lorraine, Orléans place in 1532. It was however little more than prospec(heir presumptive to the throne of France, and afterwards tive; for Claude had bequeathed the duchy to her son the Louis XII.), Foix, and others, for mutual protection and dauphin, who was recognized as sovereign of the country; support against the court of France, which was now directed but the act of union provided that it should be irrevocably by Anne, Lady of Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XI., and united to the French crown. guardian of her young brother the King Charles VIII. This led in 1487 to the invasion of Bretagne by the French. Henry VII. of England, who had in his adversity resided for some time in Bretagne, did not interfere in time: the occasion seemed favourable for annexing Bretagne to France, the king of which country laid claim to the duchy, by virtue of the rights of the house of Blois, which Louis XI. had long since purchased. Nantes was attacked; but the invaders were repulsed. In 1488 a battle was fought at St. Aubin de Cormier between the French army under La Tremouille and the Bretons and their allies, English, Germans, Gascons, and Spaniards: the latter were defeated with loss, and the duke of Orléans was taken prisoner on the field. A treaty was however agreed upon, and François died just after its conclusion, the 7th or 9th Sept. 1488.

We might here terminate our sketch of the history of Bretagne; but the events which occurred during the religious wars of the sixteenth century claim some notice. Notwithstanding the act of union, subsequent claimants to the duchy appeared in the husbands of two of the granddaughters of François I., king of France; and in the duke of Mercœur, a branch of the powerful and ambitious house of Lorraine, who claimed to represent the antient though now almost obsolete claims of the houses of Blois and Penthièvre. The duke had been imprudently nominated by Henry III. governor of the province, and he took advantage of his position to raise forces at once to support the league,' and to sustain his own pretensions. Upon the assassination of the duke of Guise, Mercœur broke out into open revolt (about 1588); Nantes declared in his favour; Rennes was Anne, daughter of the late duke, succeeded to the duchy. seized by his partisans, but recovered by the inhabitants; Her situation was embarrassing and painful. The maréchal the greater part of the province was in his power; and the de Rieux, her guardian, and other powerful persons at the count of Soissons, who was sent to supersede him in the court, wished her to marry the Sire d'Albret, a Gascon government, was taken prisoner by him on his road. He noble, to whom she was exceedingly averse. Some Eng- openly asserted his claims, and war was carried on with lish and Spanish auxiliaries arrived to defend her against activity between him and the prince of Dombes, who comthe hostile designs of France, but she feared that the Eng-manded the royalists. A body of Spaniards landed to suplish would make themselves masters of her person, and port the duke; a body of English came to the aid of the compel her to marry the Sire d'Albret. To put an end to royalists. Lower Bretagne was devastated by partisan these intrigues and annoyances, she gave her hand to the corps; and the war was only concluded by the approach of Archduke Maximilian, to whom she was married by proxy Henry IV., with whom Mercœur, through the intercession in 1489. The French wished to dissolve the marriage, of Gabrielle d'Estrées, the king's mistress, made an advanwhich indeed was never consummated; and in the year tageous treaty, receiving considerable sums of money and 1490 hostilities recommenced between France and Bretagne. other benefits, and resigning both his government and his The Sire d'Albret, piqued at his rejection by the young claims to the duchy. It was in this expedition to Bretagne duchess, put into their hands the important town of that Henry issued the celebrated edict of Nantes, 13th Nantes, which he had surprised; and the duchess herself April, 1598. was besieged in Rennes, and reduced to the necessity of negotiating. During the negotiations a proposal was made on the part of the French, listened to by the Breton leaders, and finally carried into effect, that the duchess and the young king of France, Charles VIII., should reconcile their discordant claims by marrying. The difficulties of the project seemed great: Anne was already married by proxy to Maximilian, and Charles was engaged to marry the same prince's daughter, who had been sent to France, being yet under the marriageable age. These difficulties were broken through; the young archduchess was sent home, Charles and Anne were married, and a dispensation from the pope then solicited and obtained. This marriage took place A.D. 1491; and by the terms of it the rights of whichever party died first were to go to the survivor, in default of lawful issue. The duchess was bound also, if she survived, to marry only the future king of France or the heir presumptive, so that the final union of the duchy with the crown was apparently secured.

In 1498, Charles VIII. died without children; and in 1499, nine months after his decease, Anne married his successor, Louis XII., who had cleared the way for this marriage by unjustly and perfidiously divorcing his former wife Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI., though she had never abandoned him in his troubles. The articles of marriage between Anne

From this time the history of Bretagne ceases to possess any importance. It became completely a province of France, and the traces of its separate existence (except always the prevalence of the Breton .anguage), which diminished during the monarchy, have been quite obliterated in the new arrangements induced by the French Revolution. (Daru, Histoire de Bretagne.)

BRETON, CAPE. [CAPE BRETON.]

BREUGHEL, PETER, the son of a peasant, was born at Breughel, a village in the neighbourhood of Breda. He was placed under Peter Koek of Aalst (Alost), whose daughter he subsequently married. Having learned painting under that master, he travelled into France and Italy. He took many views by the way, particularly among the Alps.

Returning from Italy, he fixed his residence at Antwerp, and was admitted into the academy of that city in 1551. Here he lived for a long time with a mistress, whom he would have married, but for a habit she had of lying; which so displeased him, that he transferred his affections to the daughter of his old master, now dead, and obtained her hand upon condition of residing at Brussels, where she lived. While painting a view on the canal which communicates with the Scheldt, by order of the magistrates of Brussels, he was seized with his last illness. As he lay on

VOL. V.-3 F

his death-bed, he ordered many of his paintings, which were either satirical or licentious, to be brought before him, and made his wife burn them in his presence. The dates of his birth and death are unknown.

He painted chiefly comic subjects, after the manner of Jerome Bosche, whom he excelled; and he has been considered by many inferior to Teniers alone in that branch of art. His composition has been objected to; but his drawing is correct and spirited, though not very highly finished. It was his frequent custom to disguise himself and mix with the peasantry, at their festivals and games; and the happiness with which he transferred the living actions he thus witnessed to the canvass has been aptly compared to Moliere's, though in a different kind of satire. Besides comic subjects, he painted landscapes, and a few historical pictures. Two sons survived him, John and Peter.

BREUGHEL, JOHN, was born at Brussels, about 1589. According to some accounts he lost his father very young, and was brought up by his grandmother, the widow of Peter Koek, from whom he learned to paint in distemper, and afterwards studied oil-painting under an artist named Goekindt. The most probable account is, that he received the first principles of his art from his father, and the internal evidence of his works tends to confirm the latter opinion. For some time he confined himself to flower painting; but travelling into Italy, he enlarged his style, and painted landscapes, which he adorned with small figures, executed with exquisite correctness and beauty, Many painters availed themselves of his liberality, and induced him to enrich their pictures with his beautiful little figures or landscapes; among them are Steenwick, Van Baelen, Rotenhamer, Momper, &c. Even Rubens made use of his skill in more than one picture, in which Rubens painted the figures, and Breughel the landscapes, flowers, animals, and even insects.

John Breughel was extremely industrious, as the great number of his pictures, and the care with which they are finished, sufficiently attests. Growing rich by his industry, he cultivated a magnificence in his apparel, and was nicknamed Velvet Breughel, from the material of his dress, which was a costly stuff. His touch is light and spirited, his drawing correct, and his finish elaborate. His pictures are much admired; although his landscapes are injured by an exaggerated blueness in the distances. The time of his death is unknown to the Flemish authors; M. Felibien conjectures it to have been about 1642.

PETER, the other son of Peter Breughel, the elder, was the pupil of Giles Coningsloo. From the diabolical nature of his favourite subjects he has been surnamed Hellish. He did not attain the eminence either of his father or brother. BREVE, in music, a note double the length of a semibreve, and thus formed, O, or . The breve (from brevis, short), which in duration takes twice the time of the longest note now in ordinary use, was a short, brief note, three centuries ago, as the term clearly proves. Musicians have proceeded by degrees till the quarter-demisemiquaver is become our minimum, being of the breve. Indeed some have gone so far as so introduce the half-quarterdemisemiquaver; and among those who have been guilty of so monstrous an absurdity, we regret to mention the name of Beethoven.

any former commission; but while serving on courts-martial, or with a detachment composed only of his own regiment, he does duty and takes rank according to the date of his commission in that regiment. Brevet rank, therefore, is to be considered effectual for every military purpose in the army generally, but of no avail in the regiment to which the officer holding it belongs, unless it be wholly or in part united for a temporary purpose with some other corps. (See Samuel's Historical Account of the British Army, p. 615.) Something similar to the brevet rank above described must have existed in the French service under the old monarchy, for, according to Père Daniel (tom. ii. p. 217 and 227), the colonel-general of the Swiss troops had the power of nominating subaltern officers to the rank of captains by a certificate, which enabled them to hold that rank without the regular commission. The same author states also that if any captain transferred himself from one regiment to another, whatever might be the date of his commission, he was placed at the bottom of the list in the regiment which he entered, without, however, losing his right of seniority when employed in a detachment composed of troops drawn from several different regiments.

The introduction of brevet rank into the British army, as well as that of the half-pay allowance to officers on retiring from regimental duty, probably took place soon after the revolution in 1688. But the practice of granting, when officers from different regiments are united for particular purposes, a nominal rank higher than that which is actually held, appears to have been of older date; for in the Soldier's Grammar, which was written in the time of James the First, it is stated that the lieutenants of colonels are captains by courtesy, and may sit in a court of war (court-martial) as junior captains of the regiments in which they command. (Grose, Military Antiquities, vol. ii.) It was originally supposed that both officers holding commissions by brévet and those on half-p f-pay were subject to military law; but, in 1748, when the inclusion of half-pay officers within the sphere of its control was objected to as an unnecessary extension of that law, the clause referring to them in the Mutiny Act was omitted, and it has never since been inserted. In 1786 it was decided in Parliament that brevet officers were subject to the Mutiny Act or Articles of War, but that halfpay officers were not. (Lord Woodhouselee, Essay on Military Law, p. 112.) Brevet command was frequently conferred on officers during the late war; but the cause no longer existing, the practice has declined, and at present there are very few officers in the service who hold that species of rank.

BREVIARIUM was used among the Roman writers to denote a book introduced by Augustus, containing the accounts of the empire, the enumeration of the military, &c. (Sueton. Aug, c. 28.) The design of this breviarium was to explain to the Roman people the manner in which the monies levied upon them were applied; not to the emperors' private use, but for public purposes. Tiberius laid aside the breviarium, but it was resumed by Caligula. (Sueton. Calig. e. 16.)

BREVIARY, or canonical hours, the name of the daily service-book of the church of Rome, consisting of the offices of matins, prime, third, sixth, nones, vespers, and the complines; that is, of seven hours, according with the saying of David, Ps. cxix. 164, 'Seven times a day do I praise thee.'

BREVET, in France, denotes any warrant granted by the sovereign to an individual in order to entitle him to perform the duty to which it refers. In the British service, the term is applied to a commission conferring on an officer a degree of rank immediately above that which he holds in his particular regiment; without, however, conveying a power to receive the corresponding pay. Brevet rank does not exist in the royal navy, and in the army it neither descends lower than that of captain, nor ascends above that of lieutenant-colonel. It is given as the reward of some particular service which may not be of so important a nature as to deserve an immediate appointment to the full rank: it however qualifies the officer to succeed to that rank on ait contains had been revised and contracted. vacancy occurring, in preference to one not holding such brevet, and whose regimental rank is the same as his own.

The origin of the name is variously accounted for: some deriving it from the little books of psalms and lessons read in the choir, collected out of large volumes, which the old monks carried with them in their journeys; others from the shortened service which was used in the papal palace of the Lateran, afterwards brought into general use. Grancolas, in his Commentarius Historicus in Romanum Breviarium,' 4to. Ven. 1734, says, Breviarium dictum est quasi Breve Orarium, sive Precum Epitome;' an explanation countenanced by the circumstance that the name of breviary is not older than the year 1080, adopted after the offices which

In the fifteenth section of the Articles of War it is stated that an officer having a brevet commission, while serving in courts-martial formed of officers drawn from different regiments, or when in garrison, or when joined to a detachment composed of different corps, takes precedence according to the rank given him in his brevet, or according to the date of

In earlier times the designations of this service-book had been Horæ Canonica, Opus Dei,' 'Divinum Officium,' Collecta,' Agenda,' 'Cursus, &c. (Grancolas, ut supr., pp. 4, 5.)

The Breviary originally contained only the Lord's Prayer and Psalms, to which were subsequently added lessons from the Scriptures. Various additions were afterwards made by the popes Damasus, Leo, Gelasius, Gregory the Great,

infusion or sweet wort is allowed to run off into a vessel called the underback, from whence it is pumped or otherwise conveyed to the copper for boiling. When the taps are spent, or when the goods have drained sufficiently so that very little wort runs from them, the taps are closed, and a fresh quantity of hot water is run on for a second mash. Brewing coppers for small breweries are generally open; but in the large establishments dome coppers are employed, and on the dome of the copper a vessel is constructed called a pan, by which both time and fuel are materially economised. Cold wort or water is placed in this vessel at the same time that the boiling is going on in the closed copper below, the steam from which is also driven into the pan, so that in the course of the time required for the wort to boil, the fluid in the pan is raised to the boiling temperature also. When the whole of the worts are pumped into the copper the hops are thrown in, and the boiling then commences. Large coppers are supplied with an apparatus called a rouser, consisting of a vertical rod of iron extending to the bottom of the copper, with chains pending from the horizontal arms which branch off from it, and which are dragged round the bottom by machinery so as to prevent the hops from settling down and burning. When the boiling is complete, the whole contents of the copper are turned into the hop back or jack back, which is a large square or oblong vessel of wood or iron, having a false bottom for large brewings, and a sieve partition at the corners for small ones.

As the boiled worts drain from the hops, they are allowed to run into or are pumped into the coolers. These hops, when sufficiently drained, may be again boiled with a second copper of wort, or with the return wort or table-beer. The coolers are large shallow vessels, placed in as open a part of the brewery as possible, so as to command a free current of air over the whole of their surface: they may be constructed of either wood or iron. The latter possesses many advantages from its cleanliness, and the exposure of a large radiating surface to assist the cooling. There are however many foolish prejudices against the use of iron coolers. Fans and blowers are sometimes used to assist the rapidity of this part of the process. The fans are placed in the middle of the cooler and whirl round, producing a considerable movement and current; but where the cooler is large, this whirling current only affects the surrounding steam, without causing any fresh admission of atmospheric air: whereas the blower, which is situated on the outside of the cooler, and has a wooden pipe with lateral openings extending directly across the wort, is continually forcing fresh and cold air over the surface. The blower consists of a light iron paddlewheel working within a box closed at all parts, except round the axle of the wheel, at which the cold air enters, and at the opening of the wooden pipe through which it is expelled. When sufficiently cool, the worts are allowed to run into the fermenting tun. As great injury may arise from the worts remaining too long in the coolers, more particularly in summer, it becomes necessary to employ artificial means of cooling by refrigerators, the principle of which is this: a current of cold water flows through a main in one direction, while the hot wort is made to traverse in the opposite, either in an inclosed pipe within the liquor main, or around the exterior of the cooling surface. Various apparatus of this kind have been constructed, but those of Wheeler and Gregory, particularly the latter, are to be preferred from the facilities of cleaning them.

The next operation, that of fermentation, is carried on in a vessel called a gyle, or fermenting tun, which is either of a square or round shape: the latter is preferable on account of the superior cleanliness, the whole support being on the outside of the vessel in the hoops, while the square is braced together in the interior by means of knees and stays at the corners and bottom, and if of a larger size by two or three tiers of iron rods, or tiers which pass through the sides of the vessel, all of which are liable to become rusted, and accumulate bad yest and dirt. As soon as the worts begin to run from the coolers, and when a sufficient quantity is in the tun, the yeast should be added, being first rendered thin by some of the wort, so as to be easily miscible when thrown into the remainder. When the fermentation has arrived at a certain point of attenuation, that is, when a certain quantity of the saccharine matter of the wort has been converted into alcohol or spirit, it is to be cleansed from the yest; and for this purpose it is either run into smaller vessels, such as casks or rounds, or the yesty head is skimmed off from

the top, and this is repeated at intervals until the beer is clean. This operation of skimming is generally confined to the cleansing of ales. The rounds or casks are simply filled with the fermenting beer, and so arranged as to be always kept quite full, with a trough or stillion to catch the yest as it works out at the orifice of these vessels. Great care must be taken that these casks are carefully cleaned each time of using, particularly in the summer, when the yest is so liable to become stale and putrid, and to taint the next brewing that may go into them. The beer, being thus cleansed from all the yest, is now to be either racked directly into casks as for ale, or run into vats prepared for it. On the large scale a large vessel termed a tank is first used, into which the beer intended to be vatted is allowed to run so as to be perfectly well mixed, and also to deposit a further portion of yest by standing. The beer is by this means also rendered flat, which is necessary for stock or store beer that is to be kept some time before coming into use. The last operation the beer will have to undergo is the fining or clearing, which is sometimes done by the brewer, sometimes by the publican. The fining material consists of isinglass of various qualities, digested and dissolved in acid beer or sours, and their operation is supposed to be this:the gelatine or the soluble matter of isinglass is more soluble in cold acid beer than in sound beer, water, or any fluid containing spirit, and therefore when the finings are added to a well-fermented beer, the gelatine is separated from the medium which held it in solution, and by its separation it agglutinates or collects together all the lighter floating matters which render the beer thick, and ultimately falls to the bottom of the vessel with them, leaving the beer clear and transparent.

The main thing to be observed in all the operations described is cleanliness, without which it is impossible that sound beer can be brewed, let the skill of the brewer be ever so great. Whenever a vessel of any kind is emptied, it should be washed directly with sweet liquor, either cold or hot. If the latter should be found necessary, this will insure the operator against failure from this score, and will also save a great deal of extra labour, if the dirt or yest is not allowed to harden or become dry. The grist should be coarse cut, or, if crushed by rollers, should have the cuticle broken without destroying or breaking in pieces the grain; when this is done the taps will spend more freely, and a fine bright wort will be obtained; and if sparging or sprinkling the water over the goods should be adopted in the after operations instead of mashing, great advantage will arise from the facility with which the worts come down. These observations apply only to pale grists; for blown malt very fine grinding is desirable; and the roasted malt may be ground as fine as possible, so that it will pass the stones or rollers without caking. The temperatures of the mashing liquors for ale or pale grists may range from 170° of Fahrenheit to 185 according to the quantity of malt wetted, the heat increasing as the bulk of material is diminished, so that the tap heat, after the first ten minutes' running, may average about 146°. For porter, where mixed grists are employed, the mashing heat should not range higher than 165°, nor lower than 156°, so that the tap may average 140°; if a second mash is made, the heat may be increased from 15 to 20 degrees: the proportion of liquor for the first mash may be from one and a half barrels to two barrels per quarter. The goods after mashing should be allowed to stand from one to two hours before setting the taps; but the after mashes not more than half an hour. The length of time for the worts to boil should be about an hour and a half, or until the worts break bright from the hops, when a sample is taken from the copper. The proportion of hops to be used must depend so entirely on the beer in process of brewing, and the number of the boiled worts, that no certain rate can be laid down; but 4 lbs. of new hops per quarter of malt should be ample for present-use beers; for keeping-beers for exportation as much as 28lbs. per quarter have been used, but this is the extreme limit. The next point on which it is necessary to enlarge is the fermentation, which is the most variable operation in the whole process of brewing. Hardly any two counties follow exactly the same routine, some using very low heats, others very high, some cleansing early, others late, some skimming off the head, others continually beating it in: these, with a variety of other operations adopted at various stages of the process, give rise to the great variety of different-flavoured beers which we have in this country