BROUGH. [WESTMORELAND.] BROUGHTON ARCHIPELAGO is a cluster of rocky islands in the Pacific Ocean to the E. of New Zealand, between 44° and 45° S. lat., and 180° and 185° E. long.; it consists of a great number of smaller islands and rocks, and a few of moderate size. The largest is Chatham Island, and next to it Pitt's Island and Cornwallis Island. BROUNCKER, or BROUNKER, WILLIAM, Viscount Brouncker, of Castle-Lyons in Ireland (which title was conferred on his father, who had been president of Munster in 1645), was born about 1620. In 1646 he was made Doctor of Physic at Oxford. In 1660, having then succeeded his father, who died in 1645, he subscribed the declaration issued in April by the friends of the restoration. In 1662 and 1663 he was named President of the Royal Society in the charters of incorporation then granted; which office he held for 15 years. He was also chancellor of the Queen, a lord of the admiralty, and master of St. Catherine's Hospital. He died April 5th, 1684.

Lord Brouncker was a mathematician, and is the author of two remarkable discoveries. He was the first who introduced continued fractions, as follows. When Wallis was engaged upon the interpolation which led him to his wellknown theorem on the quadrature of the circle, he applied to Brouncker to consider the question; and the latter arrived at the following conclusion :-if represent the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, then

This theorem was first given by Wallis ('Arith. Inf.,' Works, vol. i. p. 469) with a demonstration, the heading of which is so ambiguously worded, that we are left in doubt whether it was his own demonstration, or his own account of Lord Brouncker's. Montucla states the first in one place (Hist. Rech. Quad. Cerc., 1831, p. 123), and the second in another ('Hist. Math.,' vol. ii. p. 355).

Brouncker was also the first who gave a series for the quadrature of a portion of the equilateral hyperbola (Phil. Trans., 1668, No. 34). There is also a paper of his (1673, No. 98) on the contest relative to the discovery of the Neilian parabola; and another (to which we cannot find the reference) on the recoil of guns. Some letters of his to Archbishop Usher are at the end of R. Parr's life of the latter; and some to Wallis, in his Commercium Epistolicum' (Works, vol. iii. p. 757).

BROUSSONE'TIA, a diœcious tree, from whose inner bark the Japanese and the Chinese have manufactured a kind of paper and the South Sea Islanders the principal part of their clothing. The only known species forms a small tree with soft, brittle, woolly branches, and large, hairy, rough leaves, either heart-shaped and undivided, or cut into deep irregular lobes. Some of the individuals are sterile, others fruitful. The flowers of the sterile trees grow in catkins, which fall soon after their anthers have all shed their pollen; these catkins are composed of little greenishpurple membranous calyxes, each seated in the axil of a hairy bract and containing four elastic stamens. The flowers of the fruitful trees are collected into round green heads, and consist of a calyx like that of the sterile tree, with a small simple pistil occupying its centre, and having a long downy stigma. The heads gradually push forth little oblong greenish bodies, which are the ripening fruits, which at maturity have a bright scarlet colour, and are of a pulpy consistence, with a sweetish insipid taste.

Broussonetia papyrifera, or the paper mulberry, as it is usually called, is not uncommon in the shrubberies of this country, where it proves perfectly hardy; but it is liable to be broken by winds, and soon becomes an unsightly object. Its wood, like that of many other arborescent Urticaceae, is soft, spongy, and of no value. In the tenacity of the woody tissue of its liber or inner bark it also corresponds with the general character of that order. It is from that part that the preparations above alluded to have been obtained. Sir James Smith gives the following abridgment of Kampfer's account of the preparation of paper from its bark by the Japanese. For this purpose the branches of the present year, after the leaves are fallen, in December, are chosen, and being cut into pieces about a yard long, are boiled till the bark shrinks and is easily separable from the wood,

which is then thrown away. The bark being dried is preserved till it is wanted. In order to make paper it is soaked for three or four hours in water, after which the external skin and the green internal coat are scraped off; at the same time the stronger and firmer pieces are selected, the produce of the youngest shoots being of an inferior quality. If any very old portions present themselves they are, on the other hand, rejected as too coarse. All knotty parts, and every thing which might impair the beauty of the paper, is also removed. The chosen bark is boiled in a lixivium till its downy fibres can be separated by a touch of the finger. The pulp so produced is then agitated in water till it resembles tufts of tow. If not sufficiently boiled, the paper will be coarse though strong; if too much, it will be white, indeed, but deficient in strength and solidity. Upon the various degrees and modes of washing the pulp, much also depends as to the quality and beauty of the paper. Mucilage obtained from boiling rice, or from a root called Oreni (Kæmpf., 474), one of the mallow tribe, is afterwards added to the pulp. The paper is finished much after the European mode, except that stalks of rushes are used instead of brass wires.'

BROUWER. [BRAUWER.]

BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN, the first eminent American novelist, in point of time, was born at Philadelphia in 1771. From childhood he manifested an engrossing love of study. He chose the law for his profession, but took a distaste to it, and was never called to the bar. Thenceforward he devoted himself to metaphysics, general literature, and politics. His first work was Alcuin, a wild series of speculations on the fancied evils of marriage; for which, however, he found himself unable to devise a remedy. 'Wieland,' his first novel, appeared in 1798. It was followed by Ormond, Arthur Mervyn,' Edgar Huntley,' and 'Clara Howard,' before 1801; and by Jane Talbot,' in 1804. Carwin,' and some other unfinished pieces, were published after his death, in 1822. He established two literary journals: The Monthly Magazine and American Review, commenced in April, 1799, and continued to the end of 1800; and The Literary Magazine and American Register, commenced in October, 1803, and continued five years. In 1806 he commenced a half-yearly work, 'The American Register, of which he lived to complete 5 vols. He published also some political pamphlets. An over-studious and sedentary life, acting on a delicate constitution, brought on consumption, of which he died, February 22, 1810. He is described as having been a man of romantic temper, benevolent heart, great invention, extensive attainments, and prodigious industry; and of most delicate and stainless morality.

Brown's novels, after being long unknown or forgotten, acquired a sudden popularity in England about 15 or 16 years ago. In style they bear some resemblance to those of Godwin, whom Brown greatly admired. For their merits, we concur in the criticism of the Encyclopedia Americana. Their leading traits are rich and correct diction, variety of incident, vivid scenes of joy and sorrow; a minute development and strong display of emotion; and a powerful use of wonderful phenomena in the physical faculties and habits of man. Almost all is new and strange in his machinery and situations, but he deals too much in the horrible and criminal. Extravagant and consummate depravity actuates too many of his characters. His scenes may rivet attention, and his plots excite the keenest curiosity: yet they pain the heart beyond the privilege of fiction, and leave in the imagination only a crowd of terrific phantoms.'

We may remark, in illustration of this passage, that in 'Wieland, the story turns on the predisposition to insanity, produced by the spontaneous combustion of a parent upon an excitable mind, which is at last driven to crime, despair, and suicide, by the persecution of an extraordinary beingCarwin, the Biloquist, of the later fragment-possessed of extraordinary powers analogous to ventriloquism. In Edgar Huntley,' the whole intricacy of the story depends on somnambulism. 'Arthur Mervyn' deserves notice in an historical light, as presenting a fearfully true picture of the ravages formerly made by the yellow-fever in the American cities. The scene is laid at Philadelphia, in the pestilence of 1793. Brown's novels were reprinted at Boston in 6 vols. 8vo., 1828. (Dunlap's Life of C. B. Brown, 1822; Encycl. Americana.)

BROWN, JOHN, founder of the system of medicine termed Brunonian. It is unnecessary to trace minutely

Once when ill, about this time, he could not be made to remain at rest in bed until they brought him an immense volume of old ballads, which kept him quiet with delight until he got most of them by heart. The boy though amiable was firm, and no beating could make him ask pardon.

About his eighth year he was removed to a school at Chiswick, in which the present Lord Lyndhurst was one of his classfellows. His last school, which he left in his sixteenth year, was Dr. Thomson's at Kensington. At school, the quickness of his memory made him disregard the task of committing a passage of an author to heart; and in order to gratify his insatiable thirst for reading, he got the books of the village circulating library put under the door of the play-ground until he read them all. On his vacation visits to his uncle at Kew, he regularly read Shakspeare through.

the events of his life, as they are now of little interest. He | was born in 1735 at Dunse, in Berwickshire, of parents in very limited circumstances, who designed him for the occupation of a weaver; but a love of learning, which he acquired when a child at school, determined him to study for the church. Accordingly he went to Edinburgh, and while pursuing his own studies, he taught Latin to obtain a livelihood. Having been employed to translate a medical thesis into Latin, he was induced to pay some attention to medical studies, and began to attend the lectures of several of the medical professors of the University, among others, those of Dr. Cullen, who having discovered his knowledge of Latin, made him tutor to his sons. Having completed the requisite course of medical studies, he obtained the degree of doctor from the University of St. Andrew's. His improvident habits soon involved him in pecuniary difficulties, and his hasty temper in quarrels with his medical brethren. He imagined that Dr. Cullen did not assist him Soon after the death of his uncle, in 1792, he returned to to the extent he might have done, and he conceived a Edinburgh; and in the session of 1792-3 studied logic in dislike to his former preceptor and benefactor, which he the University of Edinburgh under Dr. Finlayson. Spenddisplayed in a way that he thought would be most annoying ing a part of the ensuing summer in Liverpool, he became and humiliating to Cullen. It is most probable that Dr. acquainted with Dr. Currie, who put into his hands a copy Cullen had withdrawn his countenance from Brown on of Stewart's Elements of the Philosophy of the Human account of his immoral language and conduct. Cullen's Mind.' Brown was struck with an inconsistency in the docsystem of medicine was then in the highest repute, and trines of Stewart: he pointed it out to Dr. Currie, and next Brown conceived the idea of bringing forward a rival sys- winter, when attending Stewart's class, he was bold enough tem, which would supersede that of his master. Actuated to state it to him at the close of one of his lectures. Stewart by these motives, he proceeded to frame a system, of which, heard him patiently, and read a letter to him from M. Preunlike the complex doctrines of the Cullenian system, sim-vost of Geneva, containing the same objection. Stewart plicity should be the basis and recommendation. This was held that in sleep the operations of the mind which depend the origin of his Elementa Medicina. on the will are suspended, along with the doctrine that memory depends on attention, the creature of the will; the objection is obvious, why then do we remember our dreams? The acuteness which exposed the error consists more in seeing it through the glozes and colouring under which it was hid, than in the objection itself. The professor invited his pupil to his house, but never disputed with him.

The fundamental doctrine of this system was that life was a forced state, and only sustained by the action of external agents operating upon the body, every part of which was endowed, at the commencement of existence, with a certain amount of excitability. If the power or force of the external exciting agents was within a certain limit, the body was maintained in equilibrium, or in health: if the force fell short of a certain amount, the excitability accumulated in the body, and produced diseases which he termed sthenic; while the external agents, if in excess, exhausted the excitability too rapidly, and produced asthenic diseases. The means of remedying these diseases were in accordance with the views of their origin, and were equally simple and few. He discarded the numerous drugs which his prede cessors and contemporaries employed, and confined himself to two-alcohol in any of its forms, as wine, brandy, &c., as a remedy for the one set of diseases, and opium for the opposite set. He made some converts to his opinions among the students, but the fatal results which followed the application of these doctrines to practice brought discredit upon them in Edinburgh; and their author, hoping for greater success, removed to London, where he died of apoplexy in 1788, without having obtained the distinction and fortune which he expected. His system never found much favour in this country, except among a few whose minds inclined them to the adoption of hasty generalizations, such as Dr. Beddoes, who edited an edition of the Elements of Medicine, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1795, with a life of Brown prefixed. His whole works, with a more ample life, were published by his son William Cullen Brown, 3 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1804. Brown's doctrines met with a more general reception in Germany and Italy; in the former country they were propagated with great zeal by Girtanner and Weikard. Rasori made them known in Italy, and at first believed them to be well-founded, but experience convinced him of their inaccuracy, and he subsequently renounced his belief in them.

BROWN, THOMAS, son of the Rev. Samuel Brown, was born on the 9th of January, 1778, at the manse of the parish of Kirkmabreck, in the Stewarty of Kirkcudbright. About a year after her husband's death Mrs. Brown removed with her family to Edinburgh. Before he was three years old Thomas prevailed on her to teach him to read; the alphabet he learned at his first lesson, and before completing his fourth year he could read in the most distinct manner any book he met with. The Bible was his lesson book. When between four and five years of age, a lady observing him alone sitting on the floor with a large family Bible on his knee, which he was dividing into different parts with one of his hands, asked him if he was going to preach, as she saw he was looking for a text? No;' said he, I am only wishing to see what the Evangelists differ in, for they don't all give the same account of Christ.'

For several years Brown attended the lectures of Stewart, Robinson, Playfair, and Black: his evenings were generally spent in conversational discussions on all sorts of subjects with his friends Horner, Leyden, Reddie, and Erskine.

When little more than eighteen years of age, the remarks he had made in reading Darwin's Zoonomia' had swelled from a few notes, for an article in a periodical, to the size of a book. Before printing it, by the advice of Professor Stewart, he sent his MS. to Darwin, who received it very dryly, and answered it with no little asperity. In the beginning of 1798 appeared, in 1 vol. 8vo. Observations on the Zoonomia of Erasmus Darwin, M.D., by Thomas Brown, Esq. The book was highly esteemed by his friends, and an able review of it appeared in the Monthly Review,'* by Dr. Duncan, who never suspected that it was a juvenile performance. The preface, which contains the germ of his doctrine of causation, was especially admired. Brown often attacks a false theory with weapons equally fallacious, and the errors and excellencies of his book have the same source, the delight of a young and acute mind in the detection of inconsistencies. One example will be sufficient : Darwin holds that irritation, sensation, volition, and association are essential qualities of every particle of sensorial power; a dogma which Brown considered that he refuted by the inference, that every individual must in this case be made up of a multitude of distinct beings.

In 1796 he studied law for a year, a profession in which his friends augured success from his acuteness. Becoming convinced however that astuteness and not subtlety of intellect was the successful quality at the bar, and finding the joint pursuit of legal and literary knowledge incompatible with his health, he began, in 1798, to study for the profession of medicine. In 1803, when he took his diploma as M.D., his thesis De Somno' excited the admiration of his examiners.

About 1796 Brown joined a debating society in the University, in which he argued against theism; a circumstance which was used against him in after life. A few of the members of the Literary Society formed themselves in 1797 into the Academy of Physics, a society for the 'investigation of nature, the laws by which her phenomena are regulated, and the history of opinions concerning those laws.' names of Erskine, Brougham, Reddie, Brown, Rogerson, Birkbeck, Logan, and Leyden were immediately enrolled, Monthly Review Enlarged, vol. xxix., pp. 151, 264.

VOL. V.-3 P

The

and they were soon after joined by Lord Webbe Seymour, | 1808-9. A similar request in the ensuing session led him Horner, Jeffrey, Smyth, Gillespie, &c. This society gave to deliver a series of lectures, which were honoured by the rise to the Edinburgh Review,' to which Brown contri- attendance of many distinguished members of the bench, buted two or three articles in the beginning, but owing to bar, and pulpit. When Mr. Stewart resumed his lectures, some liberties taken with a paper of his in the third number the students appointed Lord John Russell and others of his connexion with it ceased. The first article in the second their number to congratulate him on his recovery, and number is by Brown, on the Philosophy of Kant; a sub- express their admiration of his substitute. Stewart, anxious ject of which he knew very little. All he knew of Kant's doc- to have Brown with him in the chair as assistant and suctrines was derived from a fantastic French account of them; cessor, personally solicited every member of the townand though acute and just remarks occur in his critique, council in his behalf, and accordingly on the recommenda it is as bad as his preparation of writing it was imperfect. tions of Dr. Gregory, Professor Playfair, and Lord MeadowA few months after taking his degree Brown published bank he was elected in May, 1810. two volumes of poems written while he was at college. They pleased, it is said, the ladies and great people whom they praised; but poems on the Sun, the Moon,' the 'Frown of Love,' and the War Fiend,' attracted little notice from any one else.

In pursuance of a system they had long adopted, the high church party, on the promotion of Professor Playfair to the chair of Natural Philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, determined to elect a clergyman to the chair of Mathematics, although the superiority of Mr. Leslie, the lay candidate, was incontestable. The approbation which this gentleman, in a note to his Essay on Heat,' had expressed of Hume's doctrine of causation was made the ground of a charge of infidelity. Brown published a pamphlet on the occasion, in which he proved that no such consequences flowed from the doctrine. The Edinburgh Review alluded to the pamphlet in the most flattering manner, and Dugald Stewart in a note to the author assured him that he had received from it much pleasure and much instruction. A second and considerably enlarged edition was published in 1806, and in 1818 a third, in which the work was improved and matured; the fourth and last edition was published in 1835. The substance of the doctrine of causation which it contains is this:-A cause is that which immediately precedes any change, and which existing at any time in similar circumstances has been always and will be always immediately followed by a similar change. Priority in the sequence observed, and invariableness of antecedence in the past and future sequences supposed, are the elements and the only elements combined in the notion of a cause. By a conversion of terms we obtain a definition of the correlative effect; and power is only another word for expressing abstractly and briefly the anteredence itself, and the invariableness of the relation. The words property and quality admit of exactly the same definition, expressing only a certain relation of invariable antecedence and consequence in changes that take place on the presence of the substance to which they are ascribed; with this difference, that property and quality as commonly used comprehend both the powers and susceptibility of substances the powers of producing changes and the susceptibilities of being changed:-and with this difference only, power, property, and quality are in the physical use of these terms exactly synonymous. Water has the power of melting salt; it is a property of water to melt salt; it is a quality of water to melt salt: all these varieties of expression signify precisely the same thing-that when water is poured upon salt the solid will take the form of a liquid, and its particles be diffused in continued combination through the mass. When we speak of all the powers of a body we consider it as existing in a variety of circumstances, and consider at the same time all the changes, that are or may be in these circumstances, its immediate effects. When we speak of all the qualities of a body we mean nothing more and we mean nothing less. For an estimate of this doctrine see CAUSATION.

In one respect this essay had a very unusual success; it convinced on one point the person at whom it aimed. On the question whether even after experience we are able to infer the relation of cause and effect as to the phenomena of the inertia of matter, the composition of forces, and such like, Professor Playfair declared himself completely convinced by his arguments.

In 1806 Dr. Brown became the partner of the eminent Dr. Gregory in his large practice. But his bias was to a literary life. In 1799 he was a candidate for the Rhetoric chair, and on the death of Dr. Finlayson for the Logic, but in both cases unsuccessfully. Owing to the decline of his health Mr. Stewart required a substitute in the Moral Philosophy class who could read lectures of his own. This Brown undertook, and lectured for a short time in session

Devoting himself to the cultivation of his health by air and exercise during the vacation, Dr. Brown made no preparation for the labours of the winter. He seldom began to write his lectures until after tea on the evening before the day on which he was to deliver them; he then wrote until two or three o'clock, slept a few hours, and resuimng his work, wrote until twelve, when he hurried off to his class. Light reading or a walk occupied the time until the recommencement of this routine. His lecture and theory of avarice were begun after one o'clock in the morning, and finished before twelve next day. Under colour of disagreeing with Dr. Reid he covered his differences with Stewart, his colleague. Nearly all the lectures contained in the first three volumes were written during his first session, and all the rest in the next. They have been published almost verbatim. The following are the more important of the peculiar and new opinions which they contain. All physical inquiry has one of two ends in view-either to discover the parts of which bodies are made up, or to ascertain the changes they undergo-the elements which compose them, and their causes and effects in relation to each other. Bodies which, in relation to our sight, are one, are in reality many; they appear simple only because we cannot see the spaces which intervene between the corpuscles of which they are made up. What we can now perceive only by means of chemical and mechanical decomposition, finer powers of perception would perceive without them. But no perfection of the senses could enable us to foresee the second object of physical inquiry-the changes of bodies-in the relations of the parts to each other, and of the whole to other bodies; and on this point reason is equally incapable à priori of assisting us. More we can never know of any substance than the parts of which it is compounded, and the changes which it undergoes.

Every one will admit that the changes of the mind are as capable of investigation as the changes of a material object; but some will not see so readily how the mind, which is simple and indivisible, can be considered in its elementary parts. But the inquiry is not into the parts and changes of the mind itself, viewed as a substance, for this is quite inscrutable; the object of investigation is thought, which being both changeful and complex, may be examined either as to the causes of its changes or the parts of its combinations.

The phenomena of mind, which may be considered either as successive or complex, as causes and effects, or as subjects of analysis, are the qualities, states, or affections of the mind of which we are conscious, such as perception, memory, reason, and emotion. Since the states of the mind are made known by consciousness, and relate to itself, a consideration of them involves an examination of con sciousness and personal identity. Consciousness is a general name for all the states of which the phenomena of mind consist. The supposition of the existence of the mind in two separate states, sensation and consciousness, at the same moment, is absurd. The proposition, 'I am conscious of a sensation' involves, besides the feeling of the sensation, a reference to self. When it means more than the present feeling, it adds to it a retrospect of some past feeling and the relation of both to the mind. Belief in our personal identity he resolves into intuition.

Brown divides the states of mind, according to their causes, into external and internal states or affections; the external are the perceptions or sensations of bodies affecting the senses; the internal affections he subdivides into two great classes, the intellectual states and the emotions.

Dr. Reid defines perception to be the feeling of the organ of sense and the reference of it to its external object. In opposition to this, Brown maintains that the sensation is referred to its object by the power of association, and not by a peculiar mental power,