confirmed heretic, and he was given up to the secular power. | After being detained eight days in the city prisons, he was taken to the Campo di Fiore, and burnt alive on the 17th February. Scioppius the Latinist, who seems to have been present at the execution, relates, in a letter to Rittershusius, that as the monks held up the crucifix to him, Bruno turned his face away, upon which Scioppius exclaims, Such is the manner in which we at Rome deal with impious men, and monsters of such a nature!'

Bruno's works, some of which had become very rare, while others remained inedited, have been collected and published together by Dr. Wagner, with a life of the author: Opere di Giordano Bruno Nolano ora per la prima volta raccolte è pubblicate, 2 vols. 8vo. Leipzig, 1830.

BRUNO, SAINT, born at Cologne in 1051, studied at Paris, and afterwards became a canon of Rheims, and director of the school or seminary of that diocese; but being disgusted with the vexations and misconduct of the Archbishop Manasses, he took the resolution of leaving the world and retiring to a solitude. He repaired first to Saisse Fontaine, in the diocese of Langres, and afterwards to a mountain near Grenoble, in 1084, where being joined by several other ascetics, he built an oratory and seven cells, separate from each other, in imitation of the early hermits of Palestine and Egypt. Bruno and his monks cultivated the ground in the neighbourhood of their cells, and lived upon the produce, and upon what the charity of pious persons supplied them with. This was the origin of the order of the Carthusians, and of the splendid convent afterwards built on the spot, which is called La Grande Chartreuse. Bruno adopted the rules of St. Benedict, but afterwards Gui, the 5th general of the order, wrote distinct regulations for it. Pope Urban II., who had studied under Bruno at Rheims, insisted upon his going to Rome, where he stood in need of his advice. Bruno after a time becoming weary of the papal court, retired to a solitude in Calabria, where he founded another convent of his order, in which he died in 1101. He was canonized in 1514. Several commentaries and treatises have been attributed to him, which were written however by another St. Bruno Signy of Asti, a contemporary of the former, and abbot of the Benedictines of Monte Casino. Of St. Bruno the Carthusian there are two letters written from Calabria, one of which is addressed to his brethren of the Grande Chartreuse, near Grenoble. (Bollandi, Acta Sanctorum; and Dict. Univ. Historique.)

BRUNSWICK (in Germany, BRAUNSCHWEIG). Two distinct sovereignties have sprung from the house of Brunswick. The possessions of the elder or ducal line are confined to the grand duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; the younger or electoral line, by whom the kingly title was assumed in 1814, possesses the kingdom of Hanover, and is also designated the Brunswick-Lüneburg, or Hanoverian line. The latter line has given kings to Great Britain from the commencement of the 18th century.

The following article relates wholly to the duchy of Brunswick. The lands of which this duchy is composed principally consist of three large unconnected districts, lying on the banks of the Aller, Ocker, Leine, and Weser, in the N.W. part of Germany. The most southern of these districts lies wholly upon or next the Lower Harz; the eastern district extends from the northern foot of the Harz to the plains of Lüneburg, and is traversed by several ranges of hills, among which are the Elm, 1100 ft. high, but declines in the north to an uninterrupted plain; and the third or western district is all highland, and embraces portions of the Solling, Iht, and Hüls ranges. These territories are bounded on the N. and S. by the kingdom of Hanover, on the E. and S.E. by Prussian Saxony and Anhalt, and on the W. are separated by the Weser from the Prussian dominions. Brunswick possesses also three isolated demesnes, the bailiwick of Ottenstein, on the right bank of the Weser, which is quite detached from the rest, and has the principality of Waldeck for its neighbour; the bailiwick of Thedinghausen, which is surrounded by the Hanoverian earldom of Hoya; and the bailiwick of Calvörde, which is situated within the borders of Prussian Saxony. These several possessions are situated between 9° 10' and 11° 22' E. long, and 51° 35′ and 52° 32′ N. lat., and occupy about 1525 sq. m. They were formerly constituent parts of the German empire, consisting of the principalities of Wolfenbüttel and Blankenburg, the ecclesiastical bailiwick of Walkenried, the bailiwick of Thedinghausen, and other

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The whole duchy contains 12 towns, 15 vill. with markets, 417 vill. and haml., and about 28,000 houses.

The northern districts of Brunswick, particularly the prin cipality of Wolfenbüttel, have an undulating surface, intersected by several ranges of hills, such as the Elm, Oder, Fallstein, and Asse; and there are also some forests: at their N. extremity heaths and moors occur, which are part of the great sandy levels which characterize the N. of Germany. The southern districts, including the Blankenburg territory, which lie within the limits of the Harz, are a succession of highlands and mountains, in part well wooded, and studded with wide and highly cultivated valleys. The Harz is the principal mountain range in the Brunswick dominions, whose share of it amounts to 164,000 acres, independently of its offsets. The loftiest summits within the duchy are the Wormberg, which is 2880, the Radauerberg 2317, the Förstertränke 2298, and the Rammelsberg 1914 ft. high. Throughout the duchy the surface gradually declines from this range towards the N., the larger portion sloping to the banks of the Weser, and the remainder eastwards in the direction of the Elbe.

The soil in the N. is highly productive, with the exception of the extreme borders, which belong to the great Lüneburg plain, though even here it does not degenerate into mere drift-sand or barren heaths. In the S. the country is mountainous and of a stony character, which is particularly observable of the Blankenburg districts; but in Wolfenbüttel and Scheppenstädt, and next the Weser and Leine, it admits of profitable cultivation. Thedinghausen consists partly of marsh and partly of high land. The most unproductive tract in Brunswick occurs in the bailiwick of Ottenstein, in the Holzminden circle.

The whole of that part of the Harz which is comprised within the Brunswick territory belongs to the region of the Lower Harz; the highest point is on the N.E. edge of the most southerly districts, whence it spreads not only over the entire principality of Blankenburg, but sends out its branches, though not always in an unbroken line, over most parts of the duchy. Of these remoter branches there are the sandstone range of the Solling' near the Weser, which occupies 18,000 acres; the Hufe next the banks of the Leine; the Elm,' consisting of wooded slopes, 31,000 acres in extent, lying between Wolfenbüttel and Schöningen; and a portion of the forest-covered heights of the Drömling,' occupying 16,776 acres in the district of Schöningen. These mountains contain the bulk of the woods and forests of Brunswick; the higher regions of the Harz are exclusively the regions of the fir and pine; the less elevated have these species of wood intermixed with underwood; and the lowest acclivities abound in oaks, beeches, birches, alders, &c.

The most considerable riv. in the duchy, the Weser, flows for about 20 m. through its western territory, between Meinbrechsen and Dospe, and again through Thedinghausen. Although eleven streams run into it on the Brunswick side, the town of Holzminden is the only place that derives any advantage from it in the way of navigation. Among its tributaries, the Aller traverses a small portion of the northern district of Vorsfelde only, but in its course receives the Ocker, the principal riv. of the northern half of Brunswick. The Ocker rises between Altenau and Andreasberge, on the Harz, and flows across the principality of Wolfenbüttel in its course northwards, until it leaves the duchy at Neubrück during its course its waters are increased by those of the Grose, Radau, Ilse, Ecker, Altenau, &c. The Ocker is very useful to the duchy as a means of transporting timber. Other tributaries of the Aller are the Leine, which enters the N. of Brunswick from the vale of Eimbeck in Hanover, divides the Harz from the Weser districts, and directs its muddy, yellowish stream through the first of those districts back into Hanover; the Fuse traverses the western extremity of Wolfenbüttel; and the Innerste, which

rises in the Harz, passes into the Hildesheim territory. The The mines of Brunswick are of two classes; one class
chief streams which discharge their waters into the Elbe or
its tributaries are the Ohre and Bode. The Bode is the
principal riv. of Blankenburg.

comprising such as are worked in conjunction with the
Hanoverian government, and the other independently of it.
The annual produce of the first class, which includes the
Brunswick contains a great number (according to Ventu- mines on the Rammelsberge, in the Upper Harz, has ever
rini 600) of natural pieces of water. The Wipperteich, near since the year 1788 been divided into seven shares, of which
Vorsfelde, is still the largest of them, although a consider- Hanover takes four and Brunswick three; and the shares
able portion of it has been reclaimed. There are mineral accruing to the latter yield, one year with another, according
springs of some note at Helmstedt and near Seesen on the to Villefosse, 2 marks of gold and 1530 of silver, 50 tons of
Harz, and sulphuretted waters near Bisperode and Bessin- copper, 52 of lead, and 70 of litharge, 115 of zinc, 985 cwts. of
gen. The great morass which formerly extended from the vitriol, 954 cwts. of sulphur, and 80 cwts. of potashes; to which
Ocker to the Bode has been drained by the navigable can. | must be added 88 lasts (about 164 tons) of salt from the works
which now unites those rivs., and has proved the means of at Julius-hall. These mines are under the direction of a joint
recovering several hundred acres of land, which are at board at Goslar, and consist of one of gold, three of silver,
present converted into luxuriant meadows and pastures. copper, and lead, and three copper and sulphur works. The
The valleys between the mountain-ranges of the S. and net yearly revenue, which Brunswick derives from this part-
W. parts of Brunswick are by no means so favourable to nership, is not estimated at more than 2000. sterling. The
the growth of grain as the rich lands in the vicinity of the Communion-Harz' also includes a high furnace and two
Weser and Leine. The eastern highlands also, being too iron-works on the Iberge, together with 45,000 acres of
cold and stony for agricultural purposes, are used for grazing forest. The Independent mines lie on the Lower Harz, in
and supplying timber; but the N. part of Brunswick, where the principality of Blankenburg, near Seesen, and the dis-
the sand usually acquires consistency from the presence of trict of the Weser; their principal produce is iron. They
loam or mould, yields good crops of most kinds of grain. give employment to 11 large works, which annually yield on
The country is seldom parched by excessive heat, and winter an average about 14,000 tons of ore, produces 3120 tons of
is usually limited to three months' duration in the northern raw iron, 865 of cast iron, 1600 of rod iron, 490 of flattened
districts; and even in the southern, the atmosphere is cold iron, &c.; 500 of raw and 1250 of cast steel, 45 and up-
and exposed to storms only among the mountain-regions of wards of tin plates, and 420 cwts. of iron wire.
the Harz. In the northern, harvest begins in the third week
of July and ends in the middle of November; and in the
southern it is not above fourteen days later

It has been estimated that thirty-three out of thirty-five parts of the entire surface of Brunswick have been made productive; and that of this surface about 336,930 acres are arable, 19,800 cultivated in fruits and vegetables, and 48,590 used as meadows; that the woods and forests occupy 332,660, the meadows and commons 235,460, and the ponds and pools 2560. The yearly produce of corn, viz., wheat, rye, barley and oats, is calculated at from 3,000,000 to 3,500,000 scheffel; and of this produce the winter wheats afford a surplus for exportation. The quantity of beans and peas grown is about 170,000 scheffel; of potatoes the quantity is considerable; of tobacco, between 6000 and 7000 cwts.; of hops, equal to the best in Germany, from 8000 to 10,000 cwts.; of rape-seed, sufficient to yield 600 tuns of oil; and of flax, about 4200 tons. Much chicory is raised as a substitute for coffee in the neighbourhood of the capital, and the whole produce amounts to between 16,000 and 20,000 cwts. per annum.

Horses are but partially reared, and most of them are of an indifferent stock; and though some good has arisen from the ducal stud kept at Harzburg, the best continue to be imported from Mecklenburg, Lüneburg, and Holstein. In 1812 the stock was about 50,300, and it is now estimated at about 53,600. With respect to horned cattle, the breed on the richer soils is, from want of care, far inferior to that in the upland districts. The farmer of Wolfenbüttel, for instance, will obtain but four pounds of butter from his cow where the farmer of the Harz will obtain seven. In many parts the breed has been improved by intermixture with Friesland and Swiss cattle; and the stocks have increased during the last twelve years from 86,400 to about 92,100. Great attention has been paid of late years to sheep; the number, which was 258,965 in 1812, is said at present to be little short of 300,000, while the yearly produce of wool now exceeds 5000 cwts. In 1812 the stock of swine was not more than 46,408, and they are not now estimated at more than 48,000. Of goats there is but a scanty supply, about 8000; and even of poultry the quantity fed is inadequate to the wants of the country. The number of bee-hives is about 10,000, and they are kept almost exclusively in the sandy districts where heaths occur. Game is becoming scarcer every day. Fresh-water fish, such as carp, pikes, and trout, are plentiful.

Wood, which is one of the staple products of Brunswick, has been so seriously injured by neglect and waste, that all the woods and forests have been placed, since the year 1827, under the control of a public board. Their most extensive sites are the districts of the Harz, Blankenburg, and the Weser, where the felling and preparing of timber, and the working it into utensils and for other domestic purposes, employ a vast number of hands. The most common kinds of wood are beech, fir, pine, and oak. Of oaks there are 716,900 in the district of the Weser alone.

Brunswick produces marble (near Blankenburg), alabaster, limestone and gypsum, potter's clay, asbestos, serpentine-stone, agate, jasper, chalcedony, garnets, porphyry, sandstone, freestone, coal (near Helmstedt, and in other places, where there are beds more than adequate to supply the whole duchy with fuel), and alum. There are four saltworks; namely, at Salzdahlum (produce 1500 tons yearly), Schöningen (1300), Salzliebenhall (800), and Juliushall (250); the last-mentioned forms part of the CommunionHarz, Cobalt and ochre are obtained from the Rammelsberge

The first census of the pop. of Brunswick, which was made in the year 1760, stated it to amount to 158,980 souls; in 1788, it had increased to 184,708; in 1793, to 191,713; and in 1799, to 209,527. But we are not enabled to speak of the present pop. of Brunswick from official returns, as none have been made public since 1812 and 1830, when the number of inh. was 209,527 (101,598 males and 107,929 females) in the first-mentioned, and 245,783 in the lastmentioned year. Of families there were 41,609 in 1830 From these data, the present pop. may be safely estimated at 250,000 souls, of whom about 150,000 belong to the 748 sq. m. forming the northern, and 100,000 to the 777 sq. m. forming the southern possessions of Brunswick. Out of the 28,000 houses, about 7300 are in towns. Independently of about 1400 Jews, the Brunswickers are all of German extraction. The peasantry use the Low German, and the townspeople and persons of education the High German dialect. In 1830, a classification according to religious persuasions (:Allgemeine Duldung) was compiled, from which it appeared that the number of Lutherans was 241,749, who were subject to the consistory at Wolfenbüttel, 6 general and 29 local superintendentships, and divided among 238 pars. and 262 auxiliary flocks, in which were 398 churches and chapels. The Reformed Lutheran Church had at that time 1056 followers and one place of worship; the Roman Catholic faith, 2386 followers and three churches (at Brunswick, Wolfenbüttel, and Helmstedt); and the Jews, five synagogues. There were some families of Herrnhuthers then resident in the duchy. The value of all ecclesiastical property was estimated, in the year 1812, at about 47.0601. (332,220 dollars), and the incomes of benefices at 17,8701. (130,000 dollars). Of these benefices, the duke of Brunswick then held the patronage of 116, landowners of 44, magistrates of 10, prelates of 40, parishes of 10, and foreign confraternities of 19. The nunneries and ecclesiastical endowments for the reception of unmarried females at Steterburg, Wolfenbüttel, Brunswick, Helmstedt, and Goslar, which had been suppressed by the Westphalian government in 1812, were reinstated in their properties in 1814, and reopened in 1816.

The government has at all times paid great attention to the intellectual improvement of the people, nor has Brunswick had reason to regret the closing of her national university at Helmstedt and her seminary for candidates in divinity at Riddagshausen, both of which were suppressed

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A

by the Westphalian government in 1812. In return for the advantages which she now derives from the neighbouring university of Göttingen, and the exemption of 40 of her youth from payment of fees at that school, she contributes a small portion of the professors' stipends. At the head of her own establishments for the purposes of education are the Lyceum, formerly the Collegium Carolinum, in Brunswick, conducted by 19 professors, and frequented by pupils from the higher classes of society. There are also the anatomical and surgical institute, at the head of which are five professors and a demonstrator; the agricultural institute; an upper gymnasium, pro-gymnasium, and a realgymnasium (for youths designed for commercial and other ordinary pursuits), the whole three constituting what is called the Real-Institut,' and conducted by a director and 35 teachers. All these establishments, as well as the cadet academy for the gratuitous education of 12 pupils for military service, are in Brunswick. There are gymnasia also in Wolfenbüttel, Helmstedt, Blankenburg, and Holzminden. For the poorer classes there are 3 schools of industry, 32 civic schools, and 435 country or parochial schools in the duchy. The Jews have likewise 2 schools for youth of their persuasion. There is a museum, with collections in natural history and numismatics, &c.; a picture-gallery in Brunswick; and a public library at Wolfenbüttel, containing upwards of 200,000 volumes and 10,000 MSS., pamphlets, &c.; besides libraries and cabinets in the capital and in other towns.

dollars), or rather more than 140,000l. per annum. In fact, the estimate, as sanctioned by the chambers, for the expen diture of the duchy in the triennial period, 1834 to 1836, amounted to 3,056,082 dollars; of which sum about 118,2901. (860,278 dollars) are applicable to defraying the expenses of the military, and about 63,870%. (464,535 dollars) to the redemption of the national debt, which amounts to about 495,000l. (3,600,000 dollars). The disbursements on account of the church and education' are paid out of the income of properties belonging to religious communities and scholastic endowments, which produces a net yearly sum of about 46,830. (340,600 dollars). Estimating the pop. at 250,000, it would appear from these data, that each individual contributes on the average a sum of about 17. 178. 4d. towards the expenses of the state every three years, or about 12s. 6d. per annum.

The military establishment consists of the quota of men which the duchy is bound to furnish to the tenth corps of the army of the German confederation; namely, 1625 infantry, 299 cavalry, and 172 artillery and pioneers; making a total of 2096.

The mineral resources of Brunswick afford extensive employment for the labouring classes; but are also employed in the spinning of yarn and weaving of linen. Yarn is spun all over the duchy, and forms an important branch of industry both in the country and in the towns; the greater part is made into linen, and some is exported. The linen manufacture once employed above 2000 weavers, but it has greatly declined of late years. In the districts nearest the Weser, the people knit considerable quantities of stockings; and in the northern parts the peasantry make for their own use a species of cloth, half of woollen and half of linen yarn, which is thence termed duct of the lowlands, and keeps 170 mills at work, from which about 900 tuns are obtained. Paper is manufactured in 16 mills, to the extent of about 5000 bales; and with the view of maintaining a regular supply, the exportation of rags is prohibited. The number of gypsum works is 18, limekilns 47, and tile and pottery manufactories 23. Earthenware and tobacco pipes are chiefly made at Helmstedt; there is a large china manufactory at Fürstenberg, and glass and mirrors are made in the parts adjacent to the Weser. The manufacture of woollens is small, and principally carried on at Brunswick; ribbons are made in Brunswick and Wolfenbüttel; soap is mostly manufactured at Holzminden. The breweries, including the celebrated

The constitution of Brunswick is a limited monarchy, the form of which is determined by the national compact, called the Landschafts-Ordnung of the 12th of October, 1832. The sovereignty passes to the female, upon the failure of the male line, and the heir apparent comes of legal age on attaining his eighteenth year. The legislature is com-beiderwand,' or union cloth. Oil is almost wholly a proposed of the duke, an upper chamber consisting of 6 prelates and the 78 holders of equestrian estates, and a lower chamber composed of 6 prelates, 19 deputies from towns (6 from Brunswick and 1 from every other town), and as many representatives of the land-holders, who do not possess equestrian rights. No minister of state can be a representative. During the prorogation of the chambers, a permanent committee of representatives acts as a legislative organ. No law can be enacted without the consent of the chambers; they have the right of proposing new laws to the duke, of exposing defects or abuses in the existing institutions of the country, and of impeaching the ministers, and even the permanent committee itself, for violations of duty. In certain cases, particularly of imminent danger to the state, they may meet without being regularly called together. The legislature must be assembled once at least every three years in the month of November; on extraordinary emergencies, a special session may be held upon the requisition of the permanent committee. The taxes are voted for periods of three years; and every point connected with the finances, and indeed with the administration of national affairs, is more or less under the cognizance and control of the legislature. All Christian persuasions, if tolerated by the law, enjoy equal protection and an equality of civil rights; and they are all placed under the general superintendence of the government. The property of the church, schools, and charitable endowments cannot be diverted from its original destination, nor can it be incorporated with the property of

the state.

There are three ministers of state appointed by the duke; and there are four hereditary grand dignitaries-an earl marshal, a master of the kitchen, a cupbearer, and a grand chamberlain. There are provincial boards in each circle for its local government and police.

The revenue is derived, in the first place, from the ducal demesnes, monopolies, &c., which yield a net income of about 54,7251. (398,000 dollars), out of which, by the settlement made between the duke and the chambers in October, 1832, 32,5907. (237,000 dollars) are applicable to the civil list. The next source of revenue is the direct taxes, which produce about 173,9407. (1,265,000 dollars); and the last are the indirect taxes, which yield about 152,350%. (1,108,000 dollars). The net income of Brunswick from these three sources averages, therefore, about 348,425 (2,534,000 dollars) in each triennial period, after deducting the civil list expenditure; but to this there is yet to be added the net produce of highway rates, the post-office, lottery, &c., about 71,7507. (522,000 dollars); and with this addition, the net income for three years will be about 420,1757. (3,056,000

Mumme brewery at Brunswick, have very much declined; and the same remark applies to the once extensive tobacco manufactories in Brunswick, Wolfenbüttel, and Holzminden. The number of water-mills is 284, wind-mills 63, and mills worked by horses 6: besides these, Brunswick possesses 51 saw and other mills.

The duchy having no coast or navigable streams, its trade with foreign parts is naturally cramped; the chief portion of it passes through Brunswick, particularly that which arises from the transit of merchandise between the Hanse towns and the interior of Germany. The chief articles of home manufacture which are exported consist of yarn, linen, grain, oil, chicory, madder, leather, timber, hops, and ironware, the estimated value of which does not at present exceed 150,000l. per annum. The importations are principally composed of colonial produce, raw materials, fish, butter, cheese, cattle, &c. (Venturini's Duchy of Brunswick; Crome, Hassel, Stein, Malchus, &c.)

BRUNSWICK.-History.-The present inhabitants of this country are by some supposed to be descendants of the Saxones or Cherusci, the former of whom were at an early date settled on the lands which lie N. of the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, and the latter, in the time of their greatest power, spread themselves on all sides round the Harz mountains. Other writers, admitting this descent in part, claim it also in favour of the Bructeri Majores, whose easterly settlements lay close upon the banks of the Weser, as well as of the Angrivarii or Angri, who dwelt on both sides of the same river. At all events it seems to be well ascertained that these tribes inhabited different parts of the present territory of Brunswick, and that the great northern antagonist of the Romans, Arminius, was a Saxon, whose native home was the banks of the Weser. In this territory too lay the field of Idistavisus (Campus Id. Tacit. Annal. H. 16), on which Arminius with his allies. who had thrown off the yoke of Rome, met with a