spinning-mill for silk thread, and an earthenware and a tobacco manufactory. A few woollens and linens are also made. The trade of the town principally consists in the wines produced by the vineyards in the environs, to the average amount of 140,000 or 150,000 aulms (2,100,000 to 2.250,000 gallons). In very favourable seasons, as many as 300,000 aulms, or about 4,500,000 gallons, are made. The bulk of this wine, which is not much inferior to Burgundy, and is well known under the name of Ofener-Wein,' comes from the extensive vineyards belonging to the town itself, which are said to cover an area of 70 sq. m.

Independently of a theatre, Buda possesses within its walls a variety of places for public amusement, and without them, an inexhaustible fund of attractions in the beauty and diversity of the surrounding country. Buda was captured by the Ottomans in 1541, and remained in their possession until the year 1686.

their antiquity, and to entitle them to at least equal credit in our inquiry into the extant sculptured images of the sage. The original Sanskrit text of the thirty-two lakshanas or characteristics, and of the eighty vyanjanas or peculiar signs of Buddha, has just been published in the appendix to an interesting paper by Mr. Hodgson in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii: p. 314, &c. Among the former we observe one (No. 14, suvarna-varnatâ) which describes Buddha as being of a gold-coloured complexion; and among the latter there is one (No. 59, tunga-nasikata), according to which he had a prominent (aquiline?) nose. Both these epithets are utterly inapplicable to an individual of the negro race. (See Abel Rémusat, Mélanges Asiatiques, Paris, 1825, 8vo., vol. i. p. 100, &c.) With reference to the curly hair of the statues of Buddha, we may mention that, accord. ing to a remark of Colonel Mackenzie (As. Res., ix. p. 249), the Mahavratas, a class of Jaina ascetics who are not BUDDHA, BUDDHISM. Among the religions of allowed to shave the head with razors, employ their disciples Asia, that of Buddha is one of the most remarkable, partly to pull out the hair by the roots; and to the effects of this for the peculiar character of its doctrine, and partly on operation they attribute the appearance on the heads of the account of the vast number of its followers. From India images of their Gurus or saints, which Europeans suppose Proper, the country which gave it birth, nearly every trace to represent curly or woolly hair. It has been suggested by of Buddhism has now disappeared; but it has become the some, that the curls on the head of the images of Buddha religion of the great majority of the inhabitants of the bigh might be accounted for in a similar manner. In the list of table-land to the north of the Himalaya, as far as the personal characteristics of Buddha, however, no less than boundary of Siberia, and it is the prevailing creed of China, six terms descriptive of his hair are enumerated (vyanjanas, of the Peninsula of India beyond the Ganges, of Ceylon, No. 72-78), which, though some are not very clear in and several islands of the Indian archipelago, and of the themselves, seem to attach a notion of beauty to its peculiar empire of Japan. According to an estimate given by appearance: this could hardly be the case if the curls had Hassel, there are now upon the globe-Christians of all been considered as morbid, and produced by a violent extirdenominations, 120 millions; Jews, nearly 4 millions; Mo-pation of the hair. The answer which Mr. Hodgson ob hammedans, 252 millions; followers of the Brahmaic reli- tained from a priest in Nepal to an inquiry respecting the gion, 111 millions; Buddhists, 315 millions. reason of Buddha being represented with curled locks was to this effect, that it was considered a point of beauty; still the notion is, as Mr. Hodgson observes, an odd one for a sect which insists on tonsure.

Though much has been written upon Buddhism, a critical investigation of its origin, its system of doctrines, and the history of its diffusion among so large a portion of mankind, is still a desideratum. Hardly any of the original authentic documents of the sect, which are written in Sanskrit, have yet been fully examined, and the information which we now possess respecting its dogmas is almost exclusively derived from sources of a secondary rank. We think it right, therefore, to warn our readers not to receive with too implicit faith the statements respecting Buddhism, which we shall endeavour to condense within the limits of the present article. Several distinguished scholars, among whom we may mention Mr. Isaac Jacob Schmidt, of St. Petersburg, Mr. Alexander Csoma de Körös, now at Calcutta, Mr. Brian Houghton Hodgson, now at Cat'hmandu in Nepal, and Mr. George Turnour, in Ceylon, are severally engaged in inquiries, the results of which may materially affect the opinions here advanced.

The origin of Buddhism is involved in much obscurity. Doubts have been raised whether Buddhism is of Indian growth, or whether it was introduced from abroad; the relative antiquity of Buddhism and the religion of the Brahmanical Hindus, who follow the religion of the Vedas, has been matter of dispute; and the greatest discrepancy prevails with respect to the epoch which, according to various authorities, should be assigned to the founder of the sect.

Among those who, contrary to the opinion generally received by the Buddhists themselves, have suspected that the seet did not originate in India, Sir William Jones must be mentioned. The curled or woolly appearance of the hair on the head of the statues of Buddha, many of which are sculptured in a black kind of limestone, combined with other circumstances, led him to form an opinion, that the inhabitants of India, who occupied the country previous to its invasion by the Brahmanic tribes from the north, were of African descent, and that in the sculptured representations of their legislator some of the characteristic appearances of the negro race had been preserved. (Asiatic Res. vol. i. p. 427.) But the foundation on which this opinion rests is in some degree shaken by the fact, that images of Buddha are as frequently seen in white or grey as in black stone; while on the contrary, statues of Krishna, Sûrya, Ganêsa, and other deities of the various Brahmanical sects, with whom the presumed reason of the Buddhists for giving the preference to black could have no weight, are nevertheless frequently seen of that colour. Another argument against the supposed African origin of Buddha may be deduced from the enumeration of his lakshanas and vyanjanas, or points of beauty and peculiar personal appearances, which are so familiar to Buddhists every where, that this circumstance alone seems to warrant

The Buddhists themselves, however much they may dis agree as to the period at which the founder of their religion lived, make no pretensions to a very high antiquity of their sect, but admit on every occasion the priority of the Brahmanic creed. The principal considerations upon which the superior antiquity of the Buddhists over the Brahmans has by some been asserted, are, 1st, the existence of large architectural remains evidently referable to the Bauddha sect, which are widely spread over nearly the whole country now occupied by the various sects of the Brahmanical pro fession; 2nd, the entire absence of every living remnant of the Bauddha sect throughout India, which presupposes that it must have ceased to exist at a very early date; 3rd, the opinion generally admitted that the Brahmanic tribes invaded India from the north or north-west, which might seem to favour a conjecture that the earlier inhabitants of the country, whom they subdued and subsequently expelled, were Buddhists; and 4th, the peculiar character of Bud dhism, which is in many respects simpler than Brah manism, e. g., in the absence of castes, and thus seems to agree better with our notions of the state of society in the early stages of its development. It will however be readily admitted that these arguments are open to objec tions. The existence of architectural remains, far from establishing any claim on the part of the Buddhists to absolute priority, only proves that the sect to which these monuments belong must for a time, and probably at a remote period, have been in the undisturbed possession of the country; and also that it had attained considerable pro ficiency in the arts of architecture and sculpture, which would naturally lead us to presume an advanced state of general civilization. That there are no Buddhists at present in the country where their former dominion is attested by those monuments, may be considered as corroborating the well-established report of the violence and intolerance with which the Bauddhas were for many centuries persecuted by the Brahmans, and at last, in the seventh century of our æra, almost entirely expelled from India. The supposition that Bauddhas were in the possession of the country at the time when the Brahmanic tribes invaded it, is likewise subject to serious doubts. The caste named Sûdras in the Brahmanic codes of law consists, in our opinion, of such of the original inhabitants of India as became subject to the Brahmans and were suffered to continue in the country where the con querors settled, but were entirely dependent on the will of the latter, and did not participate in any of those civil rights which the Brahmanic community conferred on its members.

of Ho-nan. He died there in A.D. 495. The fact that no more than 28 patriarchs are enumerated in a period of 1445 years (between 950 B.C. and 495 A.D.) would alone be sufficient to convince us that the list is imperfect, and that many names are wanting in it. The list indeed does not profess to be in every respect complete; the precise date of the accession or death of several of the patriarchs is stated not to be found on record, or to be known only approximatively; and these undisguised imperfections, which an intention to deceive on the part of the compiler might so easily have concealed, are calculated rather to confirm than to weaken our faith in the authenticity of the document.

Mr. Wilson, in his account of the 'Râjâ Tarangini, a Sanskrit chronicle in verse, of the country of Cashmir (As. Res., vol. xv. p. 111), has drawn attention to a passage which he translates as follows:-- When 150 years had elapsed from the emancipation of the Lord Sakyasinha in this essence of the world, a Bodhisattwa in this country (Cashmir), named Nâgârjuna, was Bhûmîswara (lord of the earth). As previous passages of the same chronicle allude to Buddhism as extant in Cashmir, Mr. Wilson is of opinion that Sakyasinha, the founder of the sect, has been here confounded with one of his successors, a Bodhisattwa of the sixth century B.C. In the list of early Bodhisattwas published by Rémusat, (compare Klaproth, in the Nouveau Journal Asiatique, 1833, vol. xii. p. 421,) we find one Foethonanthi, (Buddhânandî?) of Kanara, of the family of Gautama, who is stated to have died in the year 535 B.C. We think it not unlikely that this may be the person intended in the passage quoted by Mr. Wilson. Deducting 150 years said to have elapsed after his death, we have the year 383 B C. as the epoch at which the chronicle states that a Bauddha hierarch resided in Cashmir as spiritual chief, (according to Mr. Wilson's illustration of the text,) contemporary with Gonerda, the temporal sovereign.

of his extreme sanctity. Here the followers of Butta (Buddha) are clearly distinguished from both the Brach manæ and Sarmanæ. In the second passage (p. 539, ed. Potter) Clemens speaks of a sect whom he calls Semnoi (another corruption of the Sanskrit name Sramana?): they go naked all their lives; they make it a point always to speak the truth, and they inquire into the future. They worship a certain pyramid, beneath which they believe the bones of some god to be deposited. Neither the Gymnosophiste nor the Semnoi have any intercourse with women, for they deem this contrary to nature and to law, and for that reason they adhere to chastity. There are also females of this class (Euvai) who live in perpetual virginity. The pyramids here spoken of are evidently the dagobas of the modern Buddhists.

The statements respecting the religion of India and China given by the two Arabian travellers who visited these countries in the ninth century (Renaudot, Anciennes Relations des Indes et de la Chine, &c., Paris, 1718, 8vo.) are too vague to enable us in every instance to distinguish whether the pagans,' of whom they speak, were Bauddhas or not. In the report of the first traveller (1. c. p. 3) we meet with an allusion to the impression of a foot on Adam's Peak in the Island of Ceylon, a spot known to Ebn Batuta (Lee's translation, p. 189) as a place of pilgrimage, which it has continued to be till the present day with the Ceylonese Buddhists: the second traveller, in speaking of the natives of India, calls their priests Brahmans (1. c. p. 107), and in the account which he gives of their ascetics, and of their religious institutions generally, nothing occurs that would, in our opinion, admit of an application to the Bauddhas. These statements, though not very explicit, are yet interesting, as they seem to attest the expulsion of the Buddhists from India some time previous to the ninth century, and the existence of the sect in Ceylon.

In the Ante-Islamic portion of the Arabic chronicle of Abulfeda, published some years ago by Fleischer (Abulfeda, Hist. Anteislamica, &c., ed. H. O. Fleischer, Leipzig, 1831, 4to.), there is a curious chapter on the various tribes of India (p. 170, &c.) given on the authority of Shebrestani, a writer who flourished in the first half of the twelfth century. Most of the Indian tribes, or rather sects, there noticed, are easily recognised even under the somewhat adulterated names given to them by the Arab, as various branches of Brahmanic Hindus: and the only sect, the name of which bears any similarity to that of the Bud

described in a manner which removes every possibility of their being taken for followers of Sâkyasinha.

The earliest allusion to the sect of Buddha in any western writer has been supposed to occur in Herodotus (iii., c. 100; Korai, Prodr. Hell. Bibl. p. 271,) who says of certain Indians, that they kill no animals, and live on the vegetable products spontaneously produced by the soil. Nicolaus Damascenus may, however, possibly allude to the very words of Herodotus, in a detached passage where he speaks of an abstemious sect called Aritoni (Apirovo), which name seems to be the Sanscrit Arhat, or Arhata, a very common designation of the Jaina sect, who are even more distinguished than the Bauddhas by their extreme tenderness for animal life. Arrian (Indic., c. 8) mentions the name of andhists, the Behuditæ (al Bahûdiyyah, in the Arabic text), are antient fabulous king of India (Bovovac), which resembles that of Buddha in sound; but the context in which it occurs does not appear to us to warrant the conjecture of Bohlen (Indien, i. p. 319), that the founder of Buddhism be intended. Strabo (xv. c. 1, p. 712, ed Casaub.), on the authority of Megasthenes, states that there are two classes of philosophers among the Hindus, the Brachmanes and Garmanes; and from the account which he gives of the latter, who are by Clemens of Alexandria (Strom., i. p. 305) more correctly called Sarmanes, it is clear that by them the Buddhists are to be understood. The name Sarmanes appears to be the Sanscrit word Sramana, a religious mendicant, an ascetic. A Bauddha beggar is thus designated by a Brahman in the Mrichhakati,' a Sanskrit drama, supposed by Mr. Wilson to have been written either one century before, or two centuries after our æra (act viii., p. 212, ed. Calcutt.) We recognise the same word under a slightly modified shape in the first component part of the name of the Indian philosopher Zarmanos Chanes (Zápμavoc Xávns, written in some MSS. Ζαρμανοχήγας, Ζάρμανος Χήγας, Ζαρμανοxávne; and in Dion Cass. liv. c. 9, Zápμapoc, Zápμapos, or Záμapros), who came to Europe with an embassy from king Porus to Augustus, and voluntarily burnt himself at Athens. (Strabo, xv. c. i. pp. 719, 720.)

Two very remarkable passages on the various sects prevailing in India occur in Clemens of Alexandria. In the first passage (Strom. lib. i. p. 359, ed. Potter) he says that there are two classes of philosophers in India, the Sarmane and the Brachmanæ. Among the Sarmanes those called Hylobii (vλóẞtol, Mountagu thinks, should be read instead of aλóßio) do not dwell in towns or houses; they are clad with the bark of trees, eat acorns, and drink water with their hands; they know not marriage, nor procreation of children. He then proceeds to say that there are likewise among the Indians persons obeying the precepts of Butta (Bourra), whom they venerate like a god on account

We have already alluded to the indirect testimony which Ebn Batuta gives of the existence of Buddhism in Ceylon, in describing the pilgrimage to the impression of Buddha's foot on Adam's Peak. In his account of Hindustan, he describes the burning of widows and other practices reprobated by the Buddhists, the prevalence of which is sufficient to convince us that Brahmanism was at that time the established religion of the country.

Marco Polo, who visited Tangent during the second half of the thirteenth century, describes the religious institutions of Kampion, the principal city of that province, in a manner to convince us that Buddhism was then the prevailing creed there, though the name is not mentioned. The idolaters of Kampion,' says he, have many religious houses or monasteries and abbeys, built after the manner of the country, and in these a multitude of idols, some of which are of wood, some of clay, and some of stone, and covered with gilding. These images are held in extreme veneration. . . . Those persons amongst the idolaters who are devoted to the services of religion lead more correct lives, according to their ideas of morality, than the other classes, abstaining from the indulgence of carnal and sensual appetites.' (Marsden's Travels of Marco Polo, p. 181.)

An early account, communicated probably by travelling merchants, of a Lama, or spiritual chief, among the Buddhist Tartars, seems to have occasioned, in Europe, the report of a Prester John, or a Christian pontiff, resident in Upper Asia. It deserves however to be noticed that Barhebræus (Hist. Dynast., p. 280) speaks of a prince of the Eastern Turks, who was a Christian, and who was named Ung-khan, or King John (Malic Yuhanna): this prince reigned about the year 1202, and was dethroned by Gengizkhan. [PRESTER JOHN.]

However small is the information to be gathered from these

passages of foreign writers as to the history of Buddhism, it is at least in accordance with the traditions preserved among the Buddhists themselves. For several centuries after the appearance of Sakyasinha his sect seems to have flourished in India, and to have been tolerated by the Brahmans in nearly the same manner as the various divisions still existing among Hindus who follow the religion of the Vedas. Buddhism appears during this period to have penetrated the peninsula in every direction; and a succession of men of different parts of India, pre-eminent for piety, and considered as the living types of Buddha, followed him as his (figuratively) lineal descendants, and as the patriarchs or spiritual heads of the sect.

northern Circars); who, being expelled from his father's kingdom, embarked with 700 followers, and landed on Ceylon on the day of Buddha's death; i. e., according to the Cingalese computation, in April, 543 в C. (See the Epitome of the History of Ceylon, from Pali and Cingalese records, by Mr. George Turnour, in the Ceylon Almanack for 1833, p. 224, &c.) But Vijaya himself was not a Buddhist; and although there is a notion of a primeval Buddhism in Ceylon previous to the age of the reputed founder of the sect, yet its doctrines were not introduced into the island till the reign of his sixth successor Devenipeatissa, who, according to the statements of the Cingalese chronicles, must have reigned from 306 till 266 B.C. Devenipeatissa The numerous Buddhist temples, the remains of which prevailed upon Dharmâsuka, an Indian sovereign, who are scattered over a wide extent of country in India, must resided at Pattilipatta (Pataliputra ?), to send his son Mibe referred to this period. These remains it is not difficult hindu and his daughter Sangamitta, with several priests, to to distinguish from others often found in their immediate Anuradhapura, the capital of Ceylon, for the purpose of neighbourhood, but erected for the purposes of Brahmanical introducing the religion of Buddha. They arrived in the worship. The principal characteristics of temples built for first year of Deveni peatissa's reign, and propagated the docthe Buddhists are the dagobas and the images of Buddha. trines of Buddha orally. Relics of Buddha were obtained The dagoba is a hemispherical or sometimes pyramidal from various quarters, and dagobas were erected for their structure containing some relic of Buddha, which usually preservation; and a sacred tree was planted near Anurâdhastands either within or (as in Ceylon, Siam, &c.) close by a pura, which is still preserved, and is one of the principal Buddhist temple, and is supported by a pedestal, generally places of pilgrimage in the island. Walagambahu, the of a cylindrical shape, which varies in height. All images twenty-first sovereign of Ceylon, who reigned from 89 till of Buddha represent merely human figures in a contem- 77 B.C., assembled 500 of the most distinguished priests, plative posture, sometimes standing upright or reclining, and had the tenets of Buddhism reduced to writing. From but more frequently sitting on a bench, or squatted down this time we may consider Buddhism as completely estawith the feet crossed and resting upon the thighs; the fore-blished in Ceylon. Nearly five centuries subsequent to finger of the right hand sometimes rests on one of the Walagambahu, a learned priest named Buddha-ghûsana, fingers of the left, but usually the left hand rests upon the who came from Jambudwipa, on the continent of India, left knee, and the right hand is placed on the lap, being amplified and commented upon the tenets of Buddhism. held open, as if to receive an offering. The hair is always This is said to have been done in the reign of king Mahâcurled almost in the fashion of a wig, and the ears are ex- náma, A D. 410-432. It deserves to be noticed, that accordtended and drawn down as if by the weight of some orna- ing to the Maharazaven, a chronicle in the Birman language, ment suspended at them. A number of small cells is often Pali books (and the doctrines of Buddha?) were brought from seen near a Buddhist temple, apparently intended to afford Ceylon to Pegu by a priest named Boudogosa: the date shelter to pilgrims, or to ascetics and priests permanently assigned to this occurrence is the year 940 of the Birman resident near the sanctuary. æra, corresponding to A. D. 397. (Alphabetum Barmanum seu Regni Avensis. Edit. alt. Rom. 1787, p. 14, 15.) That the Birmans still acknowledge the reception of their religion and laws from Ceylon is attested by the curious fact that, about the year 1790, the king of Ava sent at separate times two messengers to Ceylon, to procure copies of their sacred writings; and in one instance the Birman minister made an official application to the Governor-general of India to protect and assist the person charged with the commission. (Symes, Embassy to Ava, p. 304.) An opinion seems even to prevail among the Talapoins or priests of Ava, that out of the Burmese empire and the island of Ceylon there are no true and legitimate priests of the laws of Buddha. (Sangermano, p. 83.)

Ruins distinguished by these peculiarities have been found near Benares, at Buddha Gaya in Bengal, at Bag in Malwa, near the Ajunta pass, at Ellora, at Nasik, at Juner, at Carli, on Salsette, and at Guntoor. Some have even supposed that ruins of a similar structure, which have been found at Bamian in the Soliman Mountains, and at Manikyala in Afghanistan, belong to the same class. Those of Boro Bodo (or Bura booder), in Java, cannot be mistaken, and prove undeniably that Buddhism once prevailed in the very centre of that island. The simultaneous occurrence of traces of Brahmanic and of Buddhic worship in several of these places is most remarkable, and has not yet been satisfactorily accounted for the most likely mode of solving the problem is, in our opinion, one of the three explanations suggested by Erskine, namely, that this proximity of their sanctuaries attests the friendly spirit that once prevailed between the two sects. Many notions peculiar to the mythology and cosmography of the Brahmans seem at an early period to have been received by the Buddhists, and to have been by them admitted as part of their own belief. This remark is well illustrated by Dr. Francis Buchanan's paper on the Religion and Literature of the Burmas' (Asiat. Res. vol. vii. p. 136, &c.), and by many passages in Sangermano's Description of the Burmese Empire,' edited by Dr. Tandy (Rome, 1833), which would, we think, be found on comparison to agree almost literally with pas sages in the Paurânic works of the Brahmans; and Captain Low, in his account of Tennasserim (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. p. 257), tells us that in that province dramatic representations founded on the history of Râma are a favourite entertainment of the inhabitants. We merely hint the probability of some influence having been exercised by this adoption of Brahmanic notions upon the architecture and sculptured decorations of temples, &c. erected by the Buddhists; and the possibility that, where remains of buildings of a Brahmanic character are now found near others of Buddhist character, both may be the work of the latter sect.

The first foreign country into which Buddhism was introduced from India appears to have been the island of Ceylon. According to the traditions preserved in the Mahâvansi and Rajavali, chronicles of Ceylon, written in the Pali language, the island received its first civilization through Vijaya, the son of Sinhabaha, King of Waggoo (in the

Of many of the sovereigns of Ceylon we find it mentioned that they formed tanks, or built and restored edifices for various religious purposes. Mahâsên, who reigned from A.D. 275 till 301, entered into negotiations with Guhasêva, King of Dansapura in Kalinga, to procure the surrender of a relic called the Dangistra Dalada, or right canine tooth of Buddha: it arrived in Ceylon, during the reign of Mahâsên's son (A.D. 308), and has since then on several occasions played a conspicuous part in the history of the island, owing to the importance attached to it by the inhabitants. As early as the year 209 of our era we find a schism among the Ceylonese Buddhists mentioned: it originated in the doctrines put forth by one Wytooliya, which were adopted by the priests resident at a temple called the Abayagiri vihâra. An inquiry was instituted, and the doctrine having been found incorrect, the books in which it was set forth were destroyed. These strong measures did not however effectually check the progress of the schism; and during a considerable period we find indications of the alternate triumph and oppression of the heretical party. Another heresy, called the Wijrawadîya, is stated to have been introduced into Ceylon from the continent of India during the first half of the ninth century.

But whilst Buddhism had thus gained ground in Ceylon, and was from thence propagated to the eastern peninsula, it had to endure in India a long-continued persecution, which ultimately had the effect of entirely abolishing it in the country where it had originated. The motive of these persecutions we confess ourselves unable fully to discover. That the caste of the Brahmans could not without jealousy and alarm witness the progress of a sect which threatened

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