of the ste pness of its south-western descent, its narrow | Greeks near Durazzo. His father returning to Italy, glens, and its rugged valleys, which are sometimes covered Bohemond remained in Illyria with his Norman and Apuby a swampy surface. Only a few roads traverse it. The lian army. He defeated the Greeks near Arta, entered most northern, which traverses the pass of Tirschenreuth, Thessaly, and besieged Larissa. At his father's death, in runs through the depression at its northern extremity, 1085, Roger, Robert's second son, took possession of Apuand connects the town of Eger with Ratisbon. Farther lia and Calabria, and Bohemond on his return from Greece south is the road which connects Nürnberg with Pilsen, found himself deprived of all share of his paternal inheritand leads through the pass of Frauenberg. The road from tance. Roger, count of Sicily, Robert's brother, took the Ratisbon to Pilsen runs through the pass of Waldmünchen. part of his nephew and namesake against Bohemond. A From Passau two roads lead to Bohemia; one terminating war ensued between the two brothers, which terminated by at Klettau traverses the pass of Eisenstein, and the other Bohemond accepting the principality of Tarentum, and leading to Strakonitz, the pass of Winterberg: lastly, the leaving his brother Roger in possession of the rest. When road between Linz and Budweis goes by the pass of Freis- the great Crusade was resolved upon in 1092, part of the tadt. Thus we find that only six roads run over a moun- Crusaders took their way through Italy, and assembled at tain range extending 112 miles in length, and two of them Bari to embark there. Bohemond, bold and aspiring, reare at its extremities; they are consequently from twenty solved upon joining them, and trying his fortune in the to twenty-five miles asunder. The difficulties of crossing East. Being at the time in his brother's camp near Amalfi, these mountains have probably long prevented the Germans which town had revolted against Roger, he addressed the from spreading farther to the east, and maintained the assembled warriors, painting to them in glowing colours aborigines of Bohemia in the possession of their country; the attractions and the merit of that holy war which was and perhaps the Germans would never have entered it, had going to be carried on in Palestine; and he succeeded so they not found the other mountain-ranges inclosing Bo- well, that nearly the whole of his brother's army determined hemia more easy of access. Even now the number of Ger- on taking the cross, amidst cries of Dieu le veut,' and promans inhabiting the country which skirts the Bohemian claimed Bohemond for their commander. Roger being side of these mountains is smaller than in other districts of thus deserted by his troops was obliged to raise the siege of Bohemia, the population being almost entirely composed of Amalfi. Both the prince of Salerno, and Tancred, the hero Czeches. of romance, immortalized by Tasso, and who was Bohemond's cousin, being the son of Emma, sister of Robert Guiscard, agreed to follow Bohemond's banner. The Norman and Apulian expedition embarked at Bari, and landed at Durazzo, the scene of Bohemond's former exploits. Bohemond took his way by land across Macedonia, and his approach to Constantinople mainly contributed to induce the emperor Alexis to offer peaceful terms to the Crusaders. He was introduced to the emperor, who treated him with great distinction, and by his polite behaviour, aided by splendid presents, he prevailed on Bohemond and several of the other chiefs to swear allegiance to him for the conquests they should make in the East. Anna Comnena, the daughter of Alexis, has left a striking portrait of Bohemond. He was remarkably tall and handsome, his eyes were blue, his complexion florid, his demeanour haughty, his look fierce, and yet his smile was soft and insinuating; but she says that he was crafty and deceitful, a despiser of laws and promises. In the arts of cunning policy he appears to have been quite a match for her father. After the capture of Nicæa, 1096, Bohemond, who commanded the left division of the Crusaders, was attacked by a vast multitude of Turks near Dorylæum, and his division was mostly cut to pieces, but by his exertions he maintained the conflict until Godfrey of Bouillon came to his assistance and routed the enemy. At the siege of Antioch, when the Crusaders despaired of obtaining possession of the town, Bohemond found out an Armenian renegade who enjoyed the confidence of the Turkish commander, and who agreed to introduce him and his men by night within the walls. Taking advantage of this, he offered his brother Crusaders to give them possession of Antioch on the condition that they should bestow upon him the principality of the town. Some of the leaders demurred to this, but the Armenian could treat with Bohemond only; the Christian camp was sufferAing for want of provisions, and Kerboga, the sultan of Mosul, was advancing against them with a large force. No time was to be lost, and all the chiefs, with the exception of Raymond of Toulouse, agreed that Bohemond should be prince of Antioch. The following night Phirous, the Armenian, introduced Bohemond and his men into the town, when nearly all the Mussulman population was massacred, June, 1098. At break of day Bohemond's red standard was seen flying over the loftiest tower of Antioch. The Christians were soon after besieged in their turn by Kerboga, and after suffering the extremities of hunger they came out to offer the Sultan battle, in which the Saracens and Turks were completely routed, and Bohemond greatly signalized himself. When the Crusaders left Antioch in the spring of 1099 for Jerusalem, Bohemond accompanied them as far as Laodicea, and then returned to Antioch to consolidate his new possession. He afterwards received the investiture of his principality from the patriarch Daimbert at Jerusalem. In an excursion into Mesopotamia he was taken prisoner by a Turkish emir, and remained two years in captivity. Both the sultan of Iconium and the emperor Alexis offered large sums to the emir in order to obtain Many rivers descend from this range. Some of them go to the Danube, and send their waters to the Black Sea; others fall into the Elbe, and go to the North Sea. Those on the south-western declivity have a short course, and fall into the Danube, which runs at no great distance from its base. The largest is the Regen, which joins the Danube opposite Ratisbon. On the side of Bohemia the rivers have a longer course. Here rises the Moldau, which is the true source of the Elbe river, and two of its most considerable affluents, the Wottowa with the Wolinka and the Beraunka. The forest of Bohemia is mostly composed of primitive rocks. The highest part of the ridge and its most elevated summits consist of granite. Gneiss everywhere accom panies the granite, but prevails in the forest of Brdy, where it advances far into the interior of Bohemia. Mica-slate is also frequently met with in the same tract. Primitive clayslate frequently covers the granite and gneiss formation. Though the highest part of the ridge is barren and nearly without vegetation, the lower parts of its slopes are covered with extensive forests of lofty trees; but as the difficulties of the transport are great, it is impossible to bring the timber to a market, and consequently the forests would be nearly useless but for a fine white sand which is found in many places on the eastern slopes. This has given rise to numerous glass-houses, where the glass is made which is known all over the world under the the name of Bohemian, and is preferred to English glass in most countries of Europe. Metals are found in many places. Native gold is met with at Przibram and Horzowicz in the district of Beraun and in several other places, but in small quantity. Some rivers bring gold sand down, which is washed, especially the Moldau, the Sazawa, and the Wottowa. Silver is more abundant and worked with advantage in some places, especially at Przibram, where it is extracted from lead-ore. small quantity of cinnabar is got near Horzowicz. Tin is worked in a few places. Lead is very abundant at Mies, Przibram, and Bleistadt. The iron mines are numerous, and are worked with great industry. Antimony, zinc, and cobalt are also common. Some precious stones also occur, especially opals, chalcedonies, and jasper, but the famous Bohemian garnets are not found in this range. Coals are found in considerable quantity on the northern lateral ranges, though they are less frequent than in the north-eastern districts of Bohemia. Great quantities of fine clay, fit for the manufacture of china ware, are found in the neighbourhood of Passau, and sent to many parts of Germany. BOHEMIANS. [GIPSIES.] BOHEMOND, the eldest son of Robert Guiscard, the Norman conqueror of Apulia and Calabria in the eleventh century. After Robert had become duke of Apulia and Calabria, and his brother Roger had made himself count of Sicily, Bohemond accompanied his father in his various expeditions to Greece and Illyria, against the emperor Alexis Comnenus. They took Corfu, and defeated the possession of Bohemond, who however contrived to persuadé the emir to accept his own ransom, although of less amount, and to make alliance with the Christians against the sultan of Iconium. Returning to Antioch he found there the faithful Tancred, who had taken care of his interests during his absence. In 1103 Bohemond returned to Italy, intent upon raising enemies against his old antagonist the emperor Alexis, whom he accused of being secretly leagued with the Turks against the Franks. In 1106 he repaired to France, where Philip I. gave him his daughter Constance in marriage: Philip's natural daughter Cecil married Tancred. Upon Bohemond's return to Italy he collected a large force, and sailed from Bari for Durazzo. After several combats with Alexis' troops, he had an interview with the emperor, in which the latter acknowledged him prince of Antioch. Bohemond died in Apulia in 1111, and was buried at Canosa. His son, Bohemond II., succeeded him as prince of Antioch. (See Gibbon, William of Tyre, Mataterra's chronicle of Robert Guiscard, and Michaud, Histoire des Croisades.) BÖHME, or BÖHM, frequently mis-written BEHMEN. In relating Böhme's life we retain the characteristic quaintness of his age. There is a small market-town in the Upper Lusatia called Alt-Seidenberg (Brucker writes Palæo-Seidenburgum), distant from Görlitz about a mile and a half, in which lived a man whose name was Jacob, and his wife's name was Ursula. They were poor, but sober and honest. In the year 1575 they had a son, whom they named Jacob. This was that Jacob Böhme who was afterwards called the Teutonic philosopher. His first employment was the care of cattle, but when grown older he was placed at a school, where he learnt to read and to write, and was after wards apprenticed to a shoemaker in Görlitz. Having served his time, in the year 1594 he took to wife Catharine the daughter of the butcher Johann Hunschmann, a citizen of Görlitz, by whom he had four sons. His sons he placed to honest trades. He himself became master-shoemaker in 1595. Jacob Böhme relates that when a herdsboy he had a remarkable trial. In the heat of mid-day, retiring from his play-fellows he went to a stony crag called the Landskron, and, finding an entrance or aperture overgrown with bushes, he went in, and saw there a large wooden vessel full of money, at which sight, being in a sudden astonishment, he retired in haste without touching it, and related his fortune to the rest of the boys, who, coming with him, sought often an entrance but could never find any. Some years after a foreign artist, as Jacob Böhme himself related, skilled in finding out magical treasures, took it away and thereby much enriched himself; yet he perished by an infamous death, that treasure being lodged there and covered with a curse to him that should find and take it away. He also relates that when he was an apprentice, his master and his mistress being abroad, there came to the shop a stranger, of a reverend and grave countenance, yet in mean apparel, and taking up a pair of shoes desired to buy them. The boy, being yet scarce promoted higher than sweeping the shop, would not presume to set a price on them; but the stranger being very importunate, Jacob at last named a price which he was certain would keep him harmless in parting with them. The old man paid the money, took the shoes, and went from the shop a little way, when standing still, with a loud and earnest voice he called, Jacob, Jacob, come forth. The boy came out in a great fright, amazed that the stranger should call him by his Christian name. The man with a severe but friendly countenance, fixing his eyes upon him, which were bright and sparkling, took him by his right hand and said to him :-Jacob thou art little but shalt be great, and become another man, such a one as the world shall wonder at; therefore be pious, fear God, and reverence his word. Read diligently the Holy Scriptures, wherein thou hast comfort and instruction. For thou must endure much misery and poverty, and suffer persecution, but be courageous and persevere, for God loves and is gracious unto thee; and therewith pressing his hand, with a bright sparkling eye fixed on his face, he departed. This prediction made a deep impression upon Jacob's mind, and made him bethink himself, and grow serious in his actions, keeping his thoughts stirring in consideration of the caution received. Thenceforward he frequented public worship much more, and profited thereby to the outward re formation of his life. Considering Luke xi. 13-My Father in Heaven will give his spirit to him that asks him, he desired that Comforter. He says that he was at last surrounded with a divine light for seven days, and stood in the highest contemplation and in the kingdom of joys whilst he was with his master in the country about the affairs of his vocation.' He then grew still more attentive to his duties, read the Scriptures, and lived in all the observance of outward ministrations. Scurrilous and blasphemous words he would rebuke even in his own master, who, being not able to bear this, set him at liberty with full permission to seek his livelihood as he liked best. About the year 1600, in the twenty-fifth year of his age, Jacob was again surrounded by the divine light, and viewing the herbs and grass in the fields near Görlitz in his inward light, he saw into their essences, use, and properties, which were discovered to him by their lineaments, figures, and signatures. In like manner he beheld the whole creation, and from that fountain of revelation he wrote his book De Signatura Rerum. In unfolding these mysteries he had great joy, yet he looked carefully after his family, and lived in peace and silence, scarce intimating to any these wonderful things, till in the year 1610 he wrote his first book, called Aurora, or the Morning Redness. This manuscript he did not choose to intrust to any man, till a gentleman of rank, an intimate friend of his, having got sight of it, prevailed upon him to indulge him with the perusal of it. This gentleman immediately took it to pieces, and with his own hand, assisted by other transcribers, copied it with amazing dispatch. Thus, contrary to the author's intention, it became public, and fell into the hands of Gregory Richter, superintendent of Görlitz, who making use of his pulpit for speaking without a gainsayer, to revile what and whom he pleased, endeavoured to stir up the magistracy to exercise their jurisdiction in rooting out this supposed church-weed. The senate convened Jacob Böhme, seized his book, and admonished him to stick to his last, and leave off writing books. The original manuscript of the Aurora, in Böhme's own handwriting, was (after having been seven and twenty years in the custody of the senate at Görlitz), on Nov. 26, 1641, presented by Dr. Paul Scipio, the then burgermaster or mayor there, to George Pflug, marshal to the court of the elector at Dresden. Pflug, who was well affected to Böhme, was then on a visit at Görlitz. Pflug dispatched this manuscript to Abraham Wilhelm van Beyerland, a citizen and merchant of Amsterdam. Upon the command of the senate he abstained from writing for seven years, after which he was moved again to write. The list of his works stands as follows. The books which he left unfinished are put in parentheses. 1. Aurora. 2. Of the Three Principles, 1619. 3. Of the Threefold Life of Man, 1620. 4. Answers to the Forty Questions of the Soul. 5. Of the Incarnation of Jesus Christ. Of the Suffering, Death, and Resurrection of Christ. Of the Tree of Faith. 6. Of the Six Points, great and small. 7. Of the Heavenly and Earthly Mystery. 8. Of the last times, to P. K. 9. De Signatura Rerum. 10. A Consolatory Book of the Four Complexions. 11. An Apology to Balthasar Tilken, in two parts. 12. Considerations upon Isaias Stiefel's book. 13. Of true Repentance, 1622. 14. Of true Resignation. 15. A Book of Regeneration. 16. A Book of Predestination and Election of God, 1623. 17. A Compendium of Repentance. 18. Mysterium Magnum, or an Exposition upon Genesis. 19. A Table of the Principles, or a Key of his Writings. 20. Of the Supersensual Life. 21. (Of the Divine Vision.) 22. Of the two Testaments of Christ, Baptism and the Supper. 23. A Dialogue between the enlightened and unenlightened Soul. 24. An Apology for the Book on true Repentance, against a Pamphlet of the Primate of Görlitz, Gregory Richter. 25. (A Book of 177 Theosophick Questions.) 26. An Epitome of the Mysterium Magnum. 27. (The Holy Weeks, or the Prayer Book.) 28. A Table of the Divine Manifestation. 29. Of the Errors of the Sects of Ezekiel Meths and Isaias Stiefel, or Antistiefelius II. 30. A Book of the Last Judgment. 31. Letters to divers Persons with Keys for hidden Words. The publication of his first book made many learned men visit him, with whom much conversing he got the use of those Greek and Latin words that are frequent in his works. Among the learned that conversed with him was a phy sician, Balthasar Walter, from Silesia, who had travelled in search of antient magical learning through Egypt, Syria, Arabia, &c., where he found such small remnants of it, that he returned unsatisfied to his own country, where he became inspector of the chemical laboratory at Dresden. Having become acquainted with Böhme, he rejoiced that at last he had found at home, in a poor cottage, that for which he had travelled so far in vain. Walter introduced the appellation of Philosophus Teutonicus. B. Walter went to the German universities, and collected such questions concerning the soul as were thought and accounted impossible to be resolved fundamentally, of which he made a catalogue, being forty in number, and sent them to Böhme, from whom he received answers to his satisfaction (which answers are public in many languages). Balthasar Walter came to Böhme and professed that he had received more solid answers than he had found among the best wits of those and more promising climates. The translator of the said answers into English presented a copy to King Charles I., who a month after said, that if Böhme were no scholar, the Holy Ghost was now in men; but if he were a scholar, he was one of the best. Doctor Weisner, after giving in a letter a curious account of the persecution of Böhme by Gregorius Richter, the primate of Görlitz, of Jacob's banishment by the senate, of their repealing their absurd and unjust order, goes on to say, Yet still tired with the prelate's incessant clamour, they at length sent for him again, and entreated him that in love to the city's quiet he would seek himself a habitation elsewhere; which if he would do they should hold themselves obliged to him for it, as an acceptable service. In compliance with this friendly request of theirs he removed from thence. After this upon a citation, Jacob Böhme came to Dresden before his highness the prince elector of Saxony, where were assembled 'six doctors of divinity, Dr. Hoe, Dr. Meisner, Dr. Balduin, Dr. Gerhard, Dr. Leysern, and another doctor, and two professors of the mathematics. And these, in the presence of his highness the prince elector, began to examine him concerning his writings, and the high mysteries therein; and many profound queries in divinity, philosophy, and the mathematics they proposed to him. To all which he replied with such meekness of spirit, such depth of knowledge and fulness of matter, that none of those doctors and professors returned one word of dislike or contradiction. The prince his highness much admired him, and required to know the result of their judgments in what they had heard. But the doctors and examiners desired to be excused, and entreated his highness that he would have patience till the spirit of the man had more plainly declared itself, for in many particulars they could not understand him. his funeral, feigning to be unwell, and his colleague, Magister Elias Theodorus, being compelled by the magistracy to preach on his death, began by saying he would rather have walked 100 miles than preach the funeral sermon. The physician at Görlitz, Dr. Kober, arranged his burial, which was performed with the usual ceremonies, to the due performance of which the clergy were compelled by the magistrates. His friends placed a cross on his grave, but his enemies pelted it with mud, and broke it to pieces. Jacob Böhme's wife died of the plague two years later. One of his four sons was a goldsmith; the others had learned other trades. All died soon after J. Böhme.' He was lean, and of small stature; had a low forehead; his temples were prominent; was somewhat hawk-nosed; his eyes were grey and very azure; his beard was thin and short; his voice low, but he had a pleasing speech, and was modest and humble in his conversation. He wrote very slowly but legibly, and seldom or never struck out and corrected what he had written. After Böhme's death his opinions spread over Germany, Holland, and England. Even a son of his persecutor Richter, being then a merchant's clerk at Thorn, edited at his own expense an epitome of Böhme's works in 8 volumes, and arranged their contents in a sort of index. The younger Richter became fond of Böhme's doctrines while he attempted to refute them. He printed of his extracts only about 100 copies; consequently they are now extremely scarce. The first collection of Böhme's works was pub lished by Heinrich Betke, Amst. 1675, 4to. At the conclu sion of the seventeenth, and in the first years of the eighteenth century, the works of Böhme were published and translated into Dutch at the expense of and by Abraham Wilhelm van Beyerland, who had bought a complete copy of Böhme's works from the advocate Hans Rothen von Baumgarten, at Görlitz. Beyerland also procured autograph copies, which be collated for his edition. Beyerland's editions are in 12mo., 8vo., and 4to. More complete than Beyerland's is the edition by Gichtel in 10 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1682. For this edition the manuscripts were bought from the heirs of Beyerland. This was reprinted with Gichtel's manuscript marginalia, Altona, 1715, 2 vols. 4to., and again with a notice of former editions and some additions from Gichtel's 'Memorialia,' 1730. There are some later editions of separate works. The best translation of his works into English is that by the celebrated William Law of Oxford, Lond. 1764, in two volumes 4to. Compare also Jacob Böhme's 'Theosophic Philosophy, unfolded by Edward Taylor, with a short account of the life of J. B. London, 1691-4; Jacob Böhm ein biographischer Versuch, Pirna, 1801-8; Jacob Böhm's Werke, Amsterdam, 1620, four volumes 8vo., 1682-8, 1698, and 1730, in ten volumes 8vo. Auszug aus Böhm's Schriften, Amst. 1718, and Francfurt, 1801-8. There are also Dutch translations. The preacher and physician John Pordage, who was born about 1625, and died in London 1698, endeavoured to systematize the opinions of Böhme in the following works: Metaphysica vera et divina. This is translated into German in three volumes, Francf. and Leipzig, 1725-28; Sophia s. detectio cœlestis sapientiæ de mundo interno et externo,' Amst. 1699; 'Theologia mystica sive arcana mysticaque doctrina de invisibilibus æternis, &c. non rationali arte sed cognitione intuitiva descripta, Amst. 1698; Comp. Jac. Brucker's Hist. crit. Philosophiæ, T. iv. P. I. Lipsia, 1766. 4, p. 695-706; Weismanni introduct. in memorab. eccl. hist. sacr. Stuttg. 1719, 4 T. II. p. 1231, seq.; Speners theologische Bedenken Theil. 3 u. 4; Arnold's " Kirchen-und Ketzer Historie, Frankf. 1700, II. 629-652; Jo. Chr. Holzhausen capistrata Böhmicolarum rabula; The Life of Jacob Behmen,' by Durand Hotham, Esq., 1654, 4to.; Memoirs of the Life, Death, Burial, and wonderful Writings of Jacob Behmen, now first done at large into English from the best edition of his works in the original German, with an introductory preface of the translator, directing to the due and right use of this mysterious and extraordinary Theosopher,' by Francis Okely, formerly of St. John's College, Cambridge, Northampton, 1780, 8vo. Claude St. Martin, who died at the beginning of the present century, published French translations under the title of Aurore Naissante;' Des Trois Principes;' De la Triple Vie; Des Quarante Questions;' Censura Philosophia Teutonicæ seu epistola de Böhmio illiusque philosophia in Henr. Mori Oper. omn.' (philos.) Lond. 1679, fol. tom. i. p. 529 seq.; extracted with additions in J. Wolfr. Jaegeri Hist. Eccl. Sec. xvii.' Ham To Jacob Böhme's questions they returned answers with much modesty, being amazed to hear from a man of that mean quality such mysterious depths. There were two astrologers present to whom, having discoursed of their science, he said, "Thus far is the knowledge of your art right and good, grounded in the mystery of nature; but what is over and above are heathenish additions." The elector being satisfied with his answers took him apart, and discoursed with him concerning difficult points, and courteously dismissed him. After this Dr. Meisner and Dr. Gerhard, meeting at Wittenberg, expressed how greatly they admired the continued harmony of Scriptures produced at his examination. Many learned men and preachers now taught those doctrines of regeneration and the means of attaining it against which they formerly exclaimed as heretical. Böhme wrote in the albums of his friends, "Wem Zeit ist wie Ewigkeit 'Soon after Böhme's return to Görlitz died his adversary the pastor primarius Gregorius Richter; and Böhme him self died three months and a half later. On Sunday, Nov. 18, 1624, early in the morning, he asked his son Tobias if he heard the excellent music? The son replied "No." "Open," said he, "the door, that it may be better heard." Afterward he asked what the clock had struck, and said, "Three hours hence is my time." When it was near six he took leave of his wife and son, blessed them, and said, "Now go I hence into Paradise;" and bidding his son to turn him, he fetched a deep sigh and departed. The new primarius refused to preach at burg, 1717, fol. 2. pp. 245-254. Against these additions | capital of a circle of the same name, is situated on the H. Mori Opera i. p. 401. ii. pp. 347, 402, 446, 447, 610. One of the most zealous supporters of Böhme's theosophy was Charles Hotham, who belonged to the noble family of that name, which has produced not only political but also theosophical martyrs. See Ad Philosophiam Teutonicam manuductio seu determinatio de origine animæ humanæ, viz. An a Deo creetur et infundatur, an a parentibus traducatur, habita Cantabrigiæ in Scholis publicis in comitiis Martii 3, 1646. A Carolo Hotham socio Petrensi et tunc uno ex procuratoribus academiæ. Lond. 1648.' The following title will show that the disputes about Böhme became very warm. A true state of the case of Mr. Hotham, late fellow of Peter House, declaring the grounds and reasons of his appeal to parliament against the sentence of those members of the committee for reformation of the universities, who on May 22 last resolved the writing and publishing of his book entitled "The Petition and Argument," &c. to be scandalous and against the privilege of parliament, and himself to be deprived of his fellowship in that college.' Printed in the year 1651. Merla, a small river which flows into the Vorskla. It was built in the year 1667, and is surrounded by ramparts of earth and a ditch. It contains four churches, about 1050 houses, and nearly 7000 inhabitants, whose chief occupation is tanning and preparing leather, as well as working it up into boots and shoes. Large flocks and herds are reared in its neighbourhood, and the place accordingly carries on a brisk trade in cow-hides, goat-skins, and fleeces. Considerable quantities of fruits and vegetables are also raised about Bohodukhoff. 50° 10' N. lat. 35° 40′ E. long.; 1451 versts (about 967 miles) distant from St. Petersburg. The circle to which this town gives its name, lies between 49° 42′ and 50° 40′ N. lat., and 32° 56′ and 36° 20′ E. long.; its area is about 1160 square miles; above three-fourths of this area are cultivated by the plough or the spade, and less than one-seventh part is occupied by woods. The number of inhabitants has increased during the last fifty years from 91,190 to upwards of 130,000. It contains four towns: Bohodukhoff; Khormynsk, a walled town with three churches and about 1700 inhabitants; Krasnokutsk on the Merla, with five churches, 800 houses, and about 5000 inhabitants; and Solotsheff, a walled town on the Uda, with four churches, nearly 1000 houses, and about 5000 inhabitants who are actively employed in cultivating grain, fruit, and vegetables, and rearing cattle. Böhme and his followers were especially persecuted by the clergy, who seemed to deem his writings on theosophical subjects an infringement of the prerogatives of the clerical order. The ecclesiastics at Görlitz persecuted Böhme during his life, and refused to bury his corpse until they were compelled by the magistrates not to disgrace the earthly re- BOII, a nation of antient Gaul, which made various immimains of a man who had led a harmless life and always grations into Italy and Germany. The district whence they been in strict communion with the Lutheran church. The originally came is not ascertained (D'Anville, Notice de admirers of Böhme were for the greater part not pro-Ancienne Gaule), but it would appear that they were near fessional divines, but noblemen, country gentlemen, cour- the Lingones and the Helvetii. They are mentioned as tiers, physicians, chemists, merchants, and in general, men forming part of the first Gaulish emigration recorded by who were eager in the pursuit of truth, and who did not Livy, Justinus, and others, which set off in quest of new stickle for modes of speech and established formalities. lands, and under two chiefs, Bellovesus and Segovesus, both The persecutions raised against him brought Böhme first nephews of Ambigatus, king of the Bituriges. Bellovesus into the notice of men of rank, who took delight in con- went over the Alps into Italy, while Segovesus crossed the versing with the poor shoemaker and his followers, while Rhine into Germany, and penetrated to the skirts of the universities and ecclesiastical courts enacted laws against great Hercynian forest. The Boii would appear to have his opinions, and his persecuted disciples appealed even in followed Segovesus, and to have settled in the heart of GerEngland to the high court of parliament. Sir Isaac Newton, many, in the country called after them Boiohemum (BoheWilliam Law, Schelling, and Hegel, were all readers of mia), from which they were afterwards driven away by the Böhme. Marcomanni, a German nation, and withdrew south of the Danubius, to the banks of the Enus (Inn). Bojodurum, now Innstadt, took its name from them. The Boii are mentioned also as having immigrated into Italy, together with the Lingones and other tribes, by passing over the Pennine or Helvetic Alps. The epoch of this immigration is a matter of doubt: some believe it to have been contemporary with that of Segovesus and Bellovesus, and they place it as early as 600 years B.C., whilst others believe it to have taken place nearly 200 years after, and not long before the march of the Gauls against Rome. (Niebuhr's History of Rome, vol. i., on the Gauls and their immigrations into Italy.) The Boii crossed the Po, and settled in the country between the Tarus, the Silarus, and the Apennines, and they took possession of the Etruscan city of Felsina, afterwards Bononia. [BOLOGNA.] The Boii were often engaged in war with Rome, and they obtained at times advantages over the Roman arms, but they were finally subjugated by Scipio Nasica, and part of their lands was taken from them. As they still continued restless, they were altogether removed by the Romans and sent across the Noric Alps, when they settled on the banks of the Dravus, near the Scordisci. Having afterwards engaged in wars with the Getæ, they were almost entirely destroyed; and we find in Pliny (iii. 24.) a vast tract between the Dravus and the Danubius called William Law, in the appendix to the second edition of Böhme's theosophy consists in the endeavour to demon- We find the Boii engaged in the Helvetian immigration into Gaul in the time of Cæsar. Whether these were from some part of their tribe which had remained in Gaul, or whether they came back from Germany into Helvetia, is not known. After the defeat of the Helvetians, the Ædui begged of Cæsar that the Boii might remain among them, which being assented to, the dui settled them in a district be The articles on Böhme in English works are often very The Boii, from Bohemia, who had settled on the banks of the Enus, became subject to the Roman empire, and formed part of the province of Vindelicia. During the decline of the empire they were exposed to the irruptions of the Marcomanni, the Thuringii, and other tribes who occupied their country, which afterwards took the name of Boioaria, or Boiaria, some say from the united names of the Boii and the Avari, a Pannonian tribe. From Boiaria the modern appel lation of Bavaria is derived. (Aventinus, Annales Boiorum.) There was also a district in Aquitania called Boii, near the sea, in the neighbourhood of Burdegala (Bordeaux.) (D'Anville, Notice de l'Ancienne Gaule.) BOIL, called also phlegmon and furunculus, from furo, to rage, on account of the violence of the heat and inflammation attending it. A boil is a tumor of an inflammatory nature seated in the skin and in the cellular tissue beneath it. It may occur on any part of the external surface of the body, and it is of various sizes from the bulk of a pea to that of a pigeon's egg, which latter it seldom exceeds. The tumor is circumscribed, prominent, hard, of a conical figure, the base of the cone being broad, deep, and intensely red. The whole surface of the tumor is exquisitely tender, and | is commonly attended with a very painful sense of burning and throbbing. Its natural termination is in suppuration, that is, in the formation of the matter called pus, but the progress is always slow and the process itself imperfect, the pus formed being generally scanty and never healthy. Only a few drops of purulent matter commonly mixed with blood flow from the most prominent or pointed part of the tumor, while there remains behind the germ, or what is commonly called the core, a purulent sloughy substance so thick and tenacious that it appears like a solid body. When this core is discharged, the pain entirely ceases and the opening heals spontaneously, but the removal of this is indispensable to the cure of the disease. The complaint is never attended with danger, and seldom accompanied with fever, excepting when the tumor is seated over some peculiarly sensitive part, or when (as occasionally happens) several tumors occur at the same time in several places. Under such circumstances, in adults of irritable habits, and almost always in children, a good deal of constitutional disturbance is excited. The disease, though local in its seat, is constitutional in its origin, and affords a good example of a class of maladies, a very large one, which are limited in their seat to a small spot, perhaps on the external surface of the body, but which have their source in the disturbance of some internal organ or of the system in general. The internal organs, the derangement of which most commonly produces this external disease, are those which belong either to the digestive or to the excrementitious systems, or to both. In consequence of the disordered state of these organs, either perfectly pure chyle is not eliminated, or the blood is not properly depurated, or excrementitious matter is re-absorbed into it, the circulating fluids become contaminated, and the result is the irritation and inflammation of the surface. The rational and successful treatment of this disease must therefore combine two objects, the removal of the local malady, and the correction of the disordered state of the system in which it has its origin. The first intention is accomplished by assisting the process of suppuration, which, as already stated, is always tardy and imperfect, but must be rendered complete before the malady can be removed. It is only losing time and protracting suffering to attempt the discussion, or, as it is termed, the resolution of the tumor. In the first place, the practitioner is in possession of no means by which he can accomplish this object; and in the second place, if he could accomplish it, he would only send back into the system what the system has already sent to the surface in order to be discharged, and the reentrance of which into the system, if it do not produce some internal mischief, will cause the re-appearance of the disease on some other part of the surface in an aggravated form. The proper external applications are repeated emollient poultices, as those made of linseed meal, which may be mixed, when the pain is violent, with conium, hyoscyamus, or opium. The suppuration is so imperfect that even the diligent use of poultices seldom causes the tumor to burst spontaneously with an aperture sufficiently large to allow of the discharge of the pus, together with the sloughy cellular substance that forms the core. As soon as any matter can be perceived in the tumor a free opening should therefore be made into it with a lancet, and as much of the matter and slough as can be forced out of it by tolerably firm pressure should be removed. Until the suppuration becomes healthy and the sloughy substance is entirely discharged, the linseed poultice should be continued. When healthy granulations begin to fill up the cavity, the application of a bit of lint and a simple pledget are the only dressings that are necessary. While recourse is had to these external applications it is indispensable to correct the disordered state of the organs. This may be effected by a course of mild alterative medicines the bowels should always be freely opened at first, and then regulated by gentle unirritating laxatives. At the same time strict attention should be paid to the diet, which should be of the plainest and simplest nature, nutri tive but not stimulating, consisting of a moderate portion of plainly cooked animal food, without fermented liquors, without pastry, and without fruit. BOILEAU, NICOLAS, SIEUR DESPREAUX, was born at Crosne, near Paris, or in Paris itself, on Nov. 1, 1636, and was the eleventh child of Gilles Boileau, first Registrar (Greffier) of the Great Chamber of the Parliament of Paris. His mother, the second wife of Gilles, was Anne de Niells. Boileau has written inscriptions, little worthy of remembrance, for a portrait of each of his parents He eulogises his father as a man of probity and of gentle disposition, rather than as possessed of much talent; and of his mother, who died during his infancy, he says nothing more than that she pleased her husband by reflecting his good qualities. Each of two elder brothers of Nicolas Boileau attained some distinction in his time. GILLES, born in 1631, pursued the law, and became successively Paymaster of the Hôtel de Ville in Paris, and Controller of the Royal Treasury. He gained also the coveted honour of admission into the French Academy; but his entrance to that body was much opposed by a literary coterie, with which he lived in almost perpetual warfare; and Pelisson, Ménage, and George Scudery are mentioned among his most powerful adversaries. Nicolas satirized his brother, in some lines which he afterwards cancelled, for having obtained a pension from Colbert, through the interest of Chapelaine: but he has allowed a dull epigram to be transmitted to us, in which, perhaps ironically, he extols the literary and oratorical merits of Gilles at the expense of his fraternal qualities. They were reconciled, however, before the death of Gilles Boileau, which occurred in 1669. In his lifetime Gilles published a translation of the Encheiridion of Epictetus and of the Tablet of Cebes, and another of Diogenes Laertius; a controversial pamphlet addressed to Ménage, and one also to Costar. An unfinished translation of Aristotle's Poetic was found among his papers after his death; and his posthumous works, consisting of Poems, Letters, his Speech on admission into the Academy, and a translation of the fourth book of the Æneid into French verse, were collected by Nicolas in one volume, 12mo. JACQUES BOILEAU was born in 1635, and studied at the College of Harcourt, where he graduated in theology. He appears to have inherited his father's gentleness of spirit, for we are told that on the destruction by fire of a library which he had spent many years and much money in forming, he recommenced his collection without any expression of regret; a story which probably means that he bore a heavy misfortune with becoming manliness, and that he sought to remedy it by an obvious method suited both to his power and his inclination. He became Dean, Grand Vicar, and Official of the Diocese of Sens. In 1694 he was promoted to a Canonry in the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, and he died in 1716, at the advanced age of eighty-two. His avowed works are numerous, but chiefly on forgotten questions of theology; and he wrote much also either anonymously or under feigned names, as Marcellus Ancyranus, Claudius Fonteius, Jacques Barnabé, &c. A complete list of his works is given in the twelfth volume of the Mémoires of Niceron; and we shall here mention the only one which is now occasionally remembered, Historia Flagellantium, sive de recto et perverso Flagellorum usu apud Christianos, Paris, 1700, 12mo. The word recto was inserted before this volume could obtain the approbation of the censor; and the freedom with which the author has visited the abuses of superstitious penance occasioned much scandal, and exposed him to numerous attacks by zealots, which probably he had anticipated, and which certainly he disregarded. treatise might as well have been left in the original Latin garb, but it was translated into French about a year after its appearance; and this version was republished in 1732 with many omissions, much softening, and an historical preface. It has also been rendered into English by De Lolme. Two repartees of Jacques Boileau which are preserved, show that he was a man of wit. When some one asked his opinion of the Jesuits, he described them as people The |