BOLOGNA (Lat. BONO'NIA), a city in the Papal State, next to Rome in population and importance. It is situated in 44° 30′ N. lat. and 11° 20′ E. long. in a plain north of the Apennine ridge and between the rivers Reno and Savena. A canal, called Naviglio, navigable for large boats, connects Bologna with Ferrara, from whence, by means of the Po, the Adige, and the intermediate canals, the water-communication extends to Venice. The popula tion of Bologna is about 70,000, but with its surrounding territory or commune about 74,300. (Calindri, Suggio Sta tistico dello Stato Pontificio, 1830.) Towards the end of the last century, when Savioli wrote his 'Annali Bolognesi,' the population of Bologna was then also reckoned at 70,000. Bologna is a thriving city, with an industrious population: the higher classes, who consist chiefly of landed proprietors, are wealthy. Many noble families reside at Bologna, where they have fine palaces the most remarkable of which, the palaces Fava, Magnani, Bentivoglio, Zambeccari, Marescalchi, Bevilacqua, Lambertini, Baciocchi, whose owner is Napoleon's brother-in-law, Ercolani, Malvezzi, Sampieri, have valuable galleries and fresco paintings by the great masters. The palace of the Podestà, in which Hentzius, son of the Emperor Frederic II., and nominal king of Sardinia, spent in confinement twenty-two years of his life, and in which he died in 1272, contains the archives of the city. The Palazzo del Pubblico, a large structure, is the residence of the cardinal legate and the seat of the various courts of justice. In the square before it is a handsome fountain with the colossal statue of Neptune by Giovanni da Bologna.

seven volumes, the second and third, by Henschen and Papebroch only, were published in 1683; the first, fourth, and fifth bear the date of 1685, and had the assistance of Francis Baert and Conrad Jauning; the sixth and seventh volumes were published by the same parties, in 1688. Henschen's personal labours however had been concluded by his death, Sept. 11th, 1681. The saints of June fill six volumes; the first published in 1695; the second in 1698; the third in 1701; the fourth in 1707, by the same parties; in the fifth, 1709, John Baptist Sollier was added as an editor; the sixth volume of this month, 1715, in two parts, was edited by Conrad Jauning alone: the Martyrologium Usuardi Monachi' being added by Sollier. Papebroch died June 25th, 1714. The saints of July extended to seven volumes; the two first by Jauning, Sollier, and John Pinei, published in 1719 and 1721; the title of the third volume had the addition of the name of William Cuper; in the fourth volume, 1725, the name of Peter Bosch was added; and these names were continued in vol. v. 1727, vol. vi. 1729, and vol. vii. 1731. The same names also appear as editors of the first three of the six volumes of August, 1733, 1735, 1737; the fourth volume of August was by Pinei and Cuper only, 1739; the fifth and sixth, 1741 and 1743, by Pinei, Cuper, and John Stilting. The saints of September fill eight volumes. The first, 1746, is by Pinei, Stilting, John Limpen, and John Veldius; the second, 1748, by Stilting, Limpen, Veldius, and Constantine Suyskhen; the third, 1750, by the same parties, with the addition of John Perier; the fourth, 1753, by Stilting, Suyskhen, and Perier; the fifth, 1755, by the same, with the addition of Urban Sticken; the sixth, seventh, and eighth, 1757, 1760, and 1762, by Stilting, Suyskhen, Perier, and John Cleus. The saints to October 14th fill six volumes; the first, 1765, edited by Stilting, Suyskhen, Perier, Cornelius Bye, Jacobus Bue, and Joseph Ghesquière; the second, 1768, and the third, 1770, by Suyskhen, Bye, and Ghesquière. Hitherto the editors are all designated as members of the Society of the Jesuits; and the volumes uniformly printed at Antwerp. The fourth volume of October was printed at Brussels, typis Regiis,' 1780, by the same editors, with the addition of Ignace Hubens, and all are now styled Presbyteri Theologi. The fifth volume, printed at Brussels typis Cæsareo-regiis, 1786, is by Corn. Bye, Jacobus Bue, and John Baptist Fonson. The sixth volume, Tongerlos, typis Abbatiæ, printed at the Abbey of Tongerloo, 1794, is described as partim à Cornelio Byeo, Joanne Baptista Fontono, presbb. Anselmo Berthodo Ord. S. Benedicti P. M. partim à Joanne Bueo presb. Sardo Dyckio, Cypriano Goorio, Mathia Stalsío, Ord. Præm. Cann. Regul.'

It is to be regretted that a work so full of curious information as the Acta Sanctorum,' continued through a series of volumes for a hundred and sixty-five years, should remain unfinished: but the great mass of monasteries in Europe has been suppressed: no purchasers can now be found for long sets of legendary reading; and it seems likely that the remaining lives will never be added to the collection. The continuation was interrupted, probably for ever, by the entrance of the French troops into Belgium in

1794.

Bollandus published separately,-1.Vita S. Liborii Episcopi,' 8vo. Antw. 1648. 2. Brevis Notitia Italiæ ex Actis SS. Januarii et Februarii,' 8vo. Antw. 1648. 3. Brevis Notitia triplici status, Ecclesiastici, Monastici, et Sæcularis, excerpta ex Actis SS. vulgatis à Bollando et sociis, 8vo. Antw. 1648.

The following works may be considered as connected with the great set of the Acta Sanctorum:'-1. 'Exhibitio Errorum quos Papebrochius suis in notis ad Acta Sanctorum commisit, per Seb. a Sancto Paulo, 4to. 1693. 2. Examen Juridico-Theologicum præambulorum Sebastiani à Sancto Paulo, auctore N. Rayæo, 4to. 1698. 3. Responsio D. Papebrochii, 3 tom. 4to. 1696-1698. 4. Acta Sanctorum Bollandiana apologeticis libris vindicata,' fol. Antw. 1755. This last work is usually found as an accompaniment to the set of the Acta.'

(Life of Bollandus prefixed to the first volume of the month of March in the Acta Sanctorum, where is also the portrait of Bollandus; Foppens, Bibliotheca Belgica, 4to. Brux. 1739, tom. i. p. 584; Moreri, Dictionn. His torique, tom. ii. fol. Par. 1759; Chalmers's Biographical Dictionary, vol. vi. pp. 25, 26; Biogr. Universelle, tom. v.

p. 60.)

Bologna abounds with churches, most of which are rich in paintings. The principal are San Petronio, a magnificent though incomplete structure, which has a meridian line traced on its pavement by the astronomer Cassini; the cathedral: and the church of San Domenico, with the tombs of Hentzius, of Taddeo Pepoli, the best magistrate of Bologna in the time of the republic: of Guido and his pupil Elisabetta Sirani; of Count Marsigli, and other illustrious individuals. The adjoining convent is the residence of the Tribunal del Sant' Uffizio or Inquisition, which still exists in the Roman States, where however its power is little felt, and it has none of the terrors of the Inquisition such as it existed till lately in Spain and Portugal.

Bologna is surrounded by walls and has twelve gates; the streets are tolerably wide, and most of them have low arcades on each side to shelter pedestrians from the rain. In the centre of the city are two lofty towers, the highest of which called Asinelli, from the name of its founder, is 320 feet high; the other, Garisenda, is only about onehalf of the height of its neighbour, but inclines on one side about nine feet. This inclination, it is said, like that of the tower of Pisa, was the result of a depression of the ground under its foundations, and the fearful effect it produces on the beholders is finely alluded to by Dante in canto 31 of the Inferno.' The Asinelli is also a little out of the perpendicular, though in a much slighter degree. Both towers date from the twelfth century. It has been observed that Bologna, seen from the neighbouring hills, has in its outline the appearance of a vessel with one mast, represented by the Asinelli, while the inclined Garisenda represents the chains.

The University of Bologna is the oldest and still one of
the first in Italy. Its origin is stated to have been under
Theodosius II., and it is said to have been restored by
Charlemagne. We find it enjoying great celebrity early in
the twelfth century. It has the following classes,-theology,
medicine, law, philosophy and mathematics and belles let-
tres. The faculty of medicine has the most and the best
filled chairs. For the distribution of the various courses,
and other details concerning the method of instruction, we
refer to an article in No. XVI. of the Quarterly Journal
of Education' on the Statistics of Education in Italy. An-
nexed to the university are a museum, a botanical garden,
an anatomical cabinet, and a library containing 80,000 vo-
lumes and 4000 MSS. Among the actual or late professors
of the University of Bologna the following names deserve
mention,-Galvani, Zannotti, Monti, Orioli, Tommasini,
Mezzofanti, and Clotilde Tambroni; the last was a lady
professor of Greek, who died in 1817. Bologna boasts of
other female professors, especially Novella d'Andrea, who
taught canon law in the fourteenth century; and Laura
Bassi, professor of physics, in the eighteenth century.

Besides the library of the university, the city of Bologna

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has a public library, the legacy of a clergyman named
Magnani, which occupies three rooms of the convent of San
Domenico, and contains 83,000 volumes. The academy of
the fine arts has a splendid gallery of paintings, chiefly of
the Bolognese school. The Instituto delle Scienze, founded
by Count Marsigli, has an observatory. The Philharmonic
Lyceum, in which 100 pupils are maintained at the expense
of the town, possesses a valuable musical library of 17,000
volumes, collected by Father Martini, a great Bolognese
composer of the eighteenth century. The College Venturoli,
founded in 1825, is devoted to students of architecture.
There is also a college for Spanish students, founded by Car-
dinal Albornoz; and another for Flemish students, who are
sent here by the goldsmiths' company of Brussels. It was
founded by John Jacobs, a Flemish goldsmith, and a friend
of Guido. The public school for the children of the poorer
classes is a fine building by the Bolognese architect Terri-
bilia; the children are taught, gratuitously, Latin, arith-dena crosses the Reno. It appears also that the little river
metic, singing, and drawing. (Valéry, Voyage Littéraire
en Italie, 1833.)

Bologna is an archbishop's see, and the series of its bishops ascends as far back as the fourth century. St. Petronius, who lived about 430, was the tenth bishop of Bologna. The city as well as its province, called Legation, are administered by a cardinal legate appointed by the pope. The court of appeal for the four provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli, sits at Bologna, and consists of six judges.

There are several manufactures of silks, paper, and pottery. The large sausages of Bologna, called mortadelle, have a long established reputation, as well as its liqueurs and confitures. The people of Bologna are frank, spirited, and fond of gaiety; they are the most independent in mind and bearing of any in the Papal State, owing probably to the long enjoyment of their municipal liberties; the lower classes are noisy, and their dialect is the most uncouth and rough sounding in all Italy. The women are generally good looking. Among the educated classes there is much information, and Bologna is still one of the most learned towns of Italy. There is a casino, or assembly rooms for the nobility, besides reading-rooms and private conversazioni. There are several theatres, at which some of the best performers of Italy are generally engaged.

The air of Bologna is pure, but the sudden changes of its temperature, owing to the proximity of the Apennines, occasion frequent inflammatory diseases. Cutaneous diseases were formerly common among the people, but the increase of cleanliness, and a better diet, have contributed greatly to extirpate them. Bologna is one of the Italian cities in which there are most foundlings; about one-seventh of the births are illegitimate.

Bologna has produced many distinguished individuals. No less than eight popes have been natives of this city, among whom Benedict XIV. is the most illustrious. The naturalist Aldovrandi, the anatomist Mondino, who was the reviver of anatomy in Europe at the beginning of the fourteenth century, the physician and naturalist Malpighi, the naturalist and astronomer Marsigli, the mathematician and engineer Eustachio Manfredi, the brothers Zannotti, Galvani and his nephew Aldini, Zambeccari, and many more scientific and literary men were natives of Bologna. Fantuzzi has devoted no less than 9 vols. folio to the biographies of Bolognese writers: Notizie degli Scrittori Bolognesi,

1781-94.

Outside of the walls, the Campo Santo, or cemetery, contains many handsome monuments, which have been illustrated in a recent work: Collezione scelta di Cento Monumenti Sepolcrali del Cimitero di Bologna.' On the hill called Della Guardia, about three miles from Bologna, is the handsome church of La Madonna di S. Luca, which is joined to the town by a long arcade consisting of 635 arches. The once splendid monastery of S. Michele in Bosco was sadly dilapidated during the French wars, and its frescoes by the Caracci and others were nearly effaced by the hands of the soldiers.

The origin of Bologna is lost in obscurity. It was the principal city of the Etruscans north of the Apennines, and was then called Felsina. When the Gauls invaded Lombardy, the Boii, one of their tribes, crossed the Po, and esta blished themselves in Felsina and the neighbouring country. Afterwards the Boii became involved in wars with Rome, and they were favourable to Hannibal in his invasion of Italy. After the end of that war the Boii with the other Cisalpine

Gauls, were conquered by the Consul Scipio Nasica, and Felsina became a Roman colony B.C. 191. The Romans changed its name into Bononia. The Via Emilia, a continuation of the Via Flaminia, was carried from Ariminum through Bononia. In the civil war between Antony and the senate, Bononia was attached to the party of the former, and it was here that the Consul Pansa, defeated by Antony in the first battle of Mutina, died of his wounds B.C. 43. In the autumn of the same year the famous meeting took place between Antony and Octavius in a small island formed by the river Rhenus (Reno) between Bononia and Mutina. The precise site of that island has been a matter of dispute. There are documents as late as the thirteenth century in which the appellation Isola Rheni occurs as being in the district of Borgo Panigale, which is a village about four or five miles north-west of Bologna, and two three miles north of the point on which the road from Bologna to MoLavinius, still called Lavino di Sopra, which now flows northwards into the Samoggia, whence the united streams run to join the Reno above Cento, formerly on descending from the Apennines into the plain of Bologna took a short cut to the eastward into the Reno, not far from the town, and somewhere about the spot where the island is supposed to have been, and this junction would serve to explain the words ad confluentes used by some historians in speaking of the place of meeting. The Reno, like all Apennine streams, is subject to overflowings, and consequent alterations in its bed, and it forms even now several little islands near Bologna.

A fire consumed great part of Bononia under Claudius (Tacit. xii. 58), when 10,000,000 sestertii were granted from the public treasury for rebuilding the town. On this occasion young Nero pleaded before the senate in favour of Bononia. (Sueton., Nero, vii.) In the third century the first Christian church was built in Bononia, and dedicated to St. Felix, which was afterwards destroyed in the persecution under Diocletian, when Proculus, Agricola, Vitalis, and other Christians of Bononia, suffered martyrdom. Bononia escaped with comparatively little damage the invasions of the northern barbarians. Alaric besieged but did not take this city. It also seems to have escaped the ravages of Attila. In the time of the Longobards Bononia formed part of the exarchate of Ravenna under the eastern empire, until Liutprand occupied it with the rest of that province. Bononia was one of the towns given by Pepin to the see of St. Peter, after his defeat of the Longobards. Under the church, Bononia was administered by dukes, probably of Longobard race. In the confusion of Italian affairs after the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty, the towns of the exarchate no longer recognized the dominion of the church, whose temporal sway was not acknowledged even at Rome itself. The bishops, and the various dukes and marquesses divided among them the dominion of the country. Under the Othos of Saxony, Bononia, as well as the other cities of North Italy, obtained privileges and franchises as imperial towns governed by their own municipal laws. Under Conrad the Salic we find counts of Bononia, who administered justice together with the Missi of the emperor.

In the wars of the investitures between the church and

the empire, the towns became de facto independent of the latter. The municipal independence of Bononia or Bologna was acknowledged by the Emperor Henry V. in 1112, by a charter. The commune had the right of coining money. The citizens assembled in general comitia, and appointed the magistrates, at the head of whom were the consuls, who were chosen from among the class of milites or nobles only. The judges and notaries were to be approved by the emperor, in whose name the judges administered justice. The town was divided into four wards, the militia of which were commanded by their respective vexilliferi. The country districts were subject to the town, the territory of which was at first extremely limited, being surrounded on every side by a host of feudal nobles, and by the domains of the churches and monasteries, which were independent of the jurisdiction of the town. By degrees however several of the surrounding nobles applied for the citizenship, and being admitted came to reside in the town. Others lost their territory in wars against the city, so that Bologna came to rule over a great part of Emilia, the country now generally called Romagna, which extends from Bologna to Rimini. In the war between Frederic I. and the Lombard League

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Bologna joined the latter. It likewise fought against
Frederic II., on which occasion the Bolognese took pri-
soner Hentzius, the natural son of the emperor, whom they
detained in captivity till the time of his death. The war of
the Bolognese against the Modenese, who were of the im-
perial party, has been immortalized by Tassoni in his clever
burlesque poem La Secchia Rapita. The factions of the
Guelphs and Guibelines proved the ruin of the liberties and
independence of Bologna, as well as of the other North
Italian cities. Ambitious and rival families sided under
either banner. The Lambertazzi, the head of the Guibeline
party, being worsted in the city by the Geremei, the chief
family of the Guelphs, were, after much bloodshed, driven
away in 1274 with 15,000 of their partisans and dependents,
men, women, and children. They however rallied in the
towns of Romagna, where they were joined by Guido da
Montefeltro, lord of Urbino, and made incursions to the very
gates, of Bologna. The Geremei applied to the pope for
assistance, offering to acknowledge him as liege lord of
Bologna. Pope Nicholas III. accordingly sent a legate to
Romagna to restore peace to that province, and through his
mediation the Guibeline exiles were recalled.
The pope
was now acknowledged protector and suzerain of Bologna.
In 1334 the pope's legate, Cardinal Bertrand du Poiet,
having rendered himself odious to the people by his tyranny,
was driven out of the city, and soon after Taddeo de' Pepoli,
a wealthy citizen, was proclaimed lord. He used his autho-
rity with temperance and justice and for the good of the
commonwealth for twelve years, but after his death his two
sons, not able to maintain their power, sold the town to the
Archbishop Visconti of Milan. The yoke of the Visconti
was hard and cruel, and after several rebellions and re-con-
quests, sometimes under the Visconti, sometimes ruled by
the papal legates, now a prey to popular anarchy, and now
subject to some of its own principal families, among which
that of Bentivoglio stood highest in influence, Giovanni
Bentivoglio was made Principe del Senato, or first magistrate
of Bologna, in 1462, and he retained the chief authority over
the state for forty-four years, under the nominal high do-
minion of the papal see. [BENTIVOGLIO.] Giovanni how-
ever incurred the displeasure of the haughty pontiff, Julius
II., who marched an army against him in 1506, and took
the city, where he established the direct dominion of the
church. In 1511 the sons of the late Giovanni Bentivoglio,
supported by the French, regained possession of Bologna,
where they remained until the following year, when, after
the battle of Ravenna and the retreat of the French
armies, the town surrendered again to Pope Julius, who
built a castle to keep the citizens in awe. From that time
till the end of the eighteenth century Bologna remained
subject to the papal see, retaining however its senate, the
members of which were appointed for life by the pope, and
appointed in their turn all subordinate civil officers, and
administered the finances of the commune; a gonfaloniere
di giustizia, and eight anziani, who were changed every
two months; and the tribuni della plebe, and massari dell'
arti, who were the heads of the respective trades or com-
panies. The senate coined money in the name of the city,
and the word 'Libertas' was retained on its escutcheon.

In June, 1796, Bonaparte entered Bologna, and drove away the papal authorities. In February, 1797, Bologna became the chief town of the Cispadane republic, which after a few months was united to the Cisalpine republic, afterwards called the Italian republic, and lastly transformed into the kingdom of Italy in 1804. Bologna was then the capital of the department Del Reno. In 1814 Bologna was occupied by the Austrians. In 1815 General Stefanini, in the name of Austria, restored Bologna and the other legations to the papal authorities. In 1831 an insurrection broke out at Bologna against the papal government, which was put down by the arrival of an Austrian auxiliary force. For the antiquities of Bologna see Malvasia, Marmora Felsinea, and Montalbani, Antichita di Bologna; and for its history Savioli, Annali; and Leandro Alberti, Istorie di Bologna.

BOLOGNA, LEGAZIONE DI, a province of the papal state, is bounded on the east by the province of Ravenna, on the north by that of Ferrara, on the west by the duchy of Modena, and on the south by the central ridge of the Apennines, which divides it from Tuscany. Its length from south-west to north-east, from the sources of the Reno above La Porretta to the confines of Ferrara beyond Malalbergo, is about fifty miles, and its greatest breadth from the

Panaro, which divided it from Modena, to the Silaro, which divides it from Imola in the province of Ravenna, is about thirty. It is watered in its length by the Reno, which enters the Po near Ferrara, and by numerous torrents descending from the Apennines. The north-east part of the province near the Po is very marshy and subject to inundations, and the southern part is mountainous, but the middle part or plain of Bologna is very productive, and in a high state of cultivation. The lower hills also, and valleys at the foot of the Apennine chain, are well cultivated. Corn, wine, fruit, all sorts of vegetables, hemp, flax, and silk are the principal products of the country. A great quantity of cattle is also reared.

The population, including the city, is 324,000. (Calindri, Saggio Statistico, 1832.) The territory is divided into 280 communes or parishes, and has a number of large villages and market-towns: the principal are, St. Agata, 3000; St. Agostino, 5000; Argetata, 3000; Argile, 2600; Baricella, 5000; Bazzano, 2200; Borgo Panigale, 3400; Budrio, 10,000; Calderara, 3000; Castelfranco, 5500; Castel Guelfo, 2400; Castelmaggiore, 3400; Castel S. Pietro, 6600; Castiglione, 2800; Crespellano, 3400; Crevalcore, 6800; Galliera, 3200; S. Giorgio di Piano, 3300; S. Giovanni in Persiceto, 6700; Granaglione, 2700; Lojano, 3000; Malalbergo, 4700; Medicina, 9000; Molinella, 7000; Minerbio, 5000; S. Pietro in Casale, 4500: Porretta, 2200. Each of these numbers includes the whole population of the respective territory or commune, of which, generally speaking, about one-half may be reckoned as the resident population of the town, the rest living in detached farm-houses, cottages, or hamlets. All the above towns are styled terre; they are all parishes and market-places, and many of them are surrounded by walls. They have each a municipal council composed of twenty-four or eighteen members, taken one-half among the nobles or chief proprietors, and the other half among the tenants or farmers. Seats in the municipal councils are hereditary, subject however to the qualification of holding possessions or domicile within the commune, being past twenty-four years of age, and having a good moral character. Two relatives in the first degree cannot sit in the same council. Vacancies in the councils are filled by the councils themselves by majority of votes. The councils appoint the magistrates, i. e. the gonfaloniere, and four elders, and all the other communal officers and servants. The gonfaloniere is renewed yearly, the elders are renewed by halves every year. The councils vote every year the municipal expenditure, as well as the communal taxes and other means to provide for it. This budget must be approved of by the legate, after which it is printed and published. The council administer the communal property, subject likewise to the inspection and approbation of the legate. This municipal system exists in all the papal state.

The peasants of the province of Bologna are seldom proprietors, few have even leases, but they hold their farms from father to son by a tacit agreement, giving one-half of the produce to the landlord and paying half the taxes. Several branches of the same family are often seen living and working together on the same farm. They are sober, peaceful, and industrious, and generally superior in morality to the lower classes of the cities. The farms are not so large as in Lombardy, but the peasantry live better on the produce of the farm than the hired and poorly paid labourers of the latter country. This metayer system prevails over most of the northern papal provinces, and also in Tuscany.

Upon the whole the province of Bologna is one of the finest and richest in the papal state. The mineral waters of La Porretta in the Apennines are much frequented by invalids.

BOLOGNESE SCHOOL OF PAINTING. The historians of the fine arts employ the word school, as it is often used in reference to other pursuits, only to denote a similarity of opinion, aim, or practice among many individuals; but the term is so far true to its literal import, that the similarity of taste alluded to does not so much arise from the accidental coincidence of independent modes of thinking, as from some common influence, and generally from the example of one powerful mind. Nor does this always involve a defect of originality; in the complicated art of painting the advances to perfection were of necessity very gradual; the greatest masters were largely indebted to the labours of their predecessors, and each of them may thus be said to have sprung from a school as certainly as that he founded one. But when excellence was once ap

proximated, originality seemed only compatible with a difference in the mode, since a difference of degree appeared to be no longer possible; and while the desire of novelty sometimes degenerated to caprice, and imitation ended in insipidity, the most plausible ambition seemed to be that which aimed at combining excellences not hitherto united in any one school. This was at least the professed object of the Caracci, the most celebrated among the Bolognese masters. It happens that this new effort took place in a school which had not before distinguished itself so greatly as the rest. The most brilliant epochs of art, south of the Alps, concur; the greatest masters having been contemporary with each other in the beginning of the 16th century. To this rule, which applies to Venice, Parma, Florence, and Rome, the Bolognese school is an exception, since it attained its comparative perfection nearly a century after the production of the finest works of Italian art.

The merits of the most distinguished later masters of the Bolognese school have been done ample justice to by many historians and biographers, but it must be confessed that the Florentine Vasari, who was naturally anxious to extol the genius of the Tuscan artists, sometimes betrays a disposition to undervalue or to vilify the earlier Bolognese painters whom he notices in his work, and he did not live to see the revolution which the Caracci produced. The chief historian of the Bolognese school, Malvasia (Felsina Pittrice), on the other hand, in his eagerness to defend his countrymen, has not unfrequently exaggerated their merits, and the two should be compared with the more impartial opinions of recent writers, among whom Lanzi, though again perhaps disposed to exalt his own Florence, will be

found the most rational.

celebrated as a goldsmith and engraver of medals before he betook himself to the pencil at a comparatively advanced age. Vasari says that he was born in 1450, and that his first picture was dated 1490. He is celebrated as a painter who succeeded beyond most others in giving an expression of sanctity and purity to his Madonnas, and a letter of Raphael's is extant in which this merit is particularly alluded to. Francia, who, in that middle style which the Italians have called antico-moderno, ranks with Perugino and Bellini, should, like them, have preceded the highest development of the art in a Raphael or a Titian; but it is precisely in this highest corresponding point that the Bolognese school is wanting, and the eulogists of Francia have in vain endeavoured to exalt him to a level with the painters of the first rank with whom he happens nearly to coincide in date. Vasari relates that when the St. Cecilia of Raphael made its appearance in Bologna, according to him in 1518, Francia, to whose care it had been consigned by the great painter himself, was so amazed at its vast superiority to his own efforts that he soon after died of mortification. It has been satisfactorily proved, by the date of some pictures of Francia, that he lived some years after this, but the story has been recently repeated by Quatremère de Quincy in his life of Raphael, and by Tieck (Phantasien über die Kunst). The school of Francia presents no distinguished names. The summit of the art had been already reached elsewhere, and his followers, who were inferior to him, were eclipsed by the disciples of Raphael. These introduced a more or less servile imitation of the style of their great model into Bologna; the best were Ramenghi called Bagnacavallo, and Innocenza da Imola. It is in the account of Bagnacavallo (which includes a notice of Innocenza, Aspertini, and Girolamo da Cotignola) that Vasari speaks so contemptuously of the Bolognese school. Bagnacavallo was however occasionally original, and some of his productions were considered worthy of the particular attention and study of succeeding masters. Three distinguished names precede the epoch of the Caracci, Primaticcio, Niccolò dell' Abate, and Pellegrino Tibaldi. Niccolò dell' Abate belongs strictly to the school of Modena, but he is associated with the Bolognese painters by some works, at Bologna, by his joint labours with Primaticcio at Fontainebleau, and by the extravagant compliment paid to him in a sonnet by Agostino Caracci, in which he is said to unite all the excellences of all the great masters. Primaticcio and Tibaldi began their studies, though at very different times, under Bagnacavallo; the first, who was the elder by many years, assisted Giulio Romano at Mantua, and under his direction acquired a facility and a classic taste which he afterwards displayed in a series of designs for the ceilings of Fontainebleau, where he was employed by Francis I. and his successors. The frescoes painted from these designs, and which are now no longer in existence, were chiefly executed by Niccolò dell' Abate. Pellegrino Tibaldi soon left Ramenghi for Rome and Michael Angelo, to whose style he devoted himself; his successful imitation of the great Florentine master, whose powerful design he sometimes blended with the excellences of other schools, places him in a relation to his prototype similar to that which Bagnacavallo holds to Raphael, and the Caracci honoured him with the appellation of the Reformed Michael Angelo.' Tibaldi was employed in Milan and afterwards in Spain, and thus the three greatest masters of this intermediate period were absent from Bologna a great part of their lives.

The arts of design were kept alive during the middle
ages by mosaics and by illuminated manuscripts; the former
were commoner at Rome and Ravenna, than in the other
Italian cities, but the art of missal-painting, which was
practised wherever there was a monastery, seems to have
attained some perfection at Bologna at an early period.
The Franco Bolognese mentioned by Dante (Purgatorio,
canto 11) as superior in this art to his master, Oderigi di
Agubbio, it appears sometimes painted in larger dimen-
sions, and the recorded dates of still earlier painters might
enable Bologna to contend for the palm of antiquity not
only with Florence but with Siena and Pisa. Franco, who
has been called the Giotto of his school, is the supposed
founder of the style of the Bolognese painters of the 14th
century. Many of their now fading works exist in the
church di Mezzaratta, a gallery, as it were, of antient spe-
cimens which, as Lanzi remarks, is to this æra of the Bo-
lognese school what the Campo Santo at Pisa is to that of
the early Florentines. In order, however, that this com-
parison should be just, it would be necessary to select cor-
responding dates; some of the works in the Campo Santo,
as for instance those of Benozzo, were executed after the
middle of the 15th century.

About 1400 the most prominent name is Lippo Dalmasio,
called, from the subjects to which he almost confined him-
self, Lippo delle Madonne: some of his works remain, and
Malvasia relates, with reference to one in the church of S.
Procolo, that he heard Guido extol its purity and grandeur
of expression, and assert that, notwithstanding the subse-
quent advancement of the art, no modern painter could
infuse so holy a feeling into similar subjects. In this early
epoch of the school the predilection for the style of the
Greek paintings, the common prototypes of Italian art, seems
to have been more decided, and to have lasted longer than
any other.
It may be here observed that the modes of
representation to which the Byzantine painters and their
Italian followers adhered were in many cases consecrated
by tradition, but independently of this the works themselves,
rude as they were, often exhibited a solemnity of treatment
which may in some degree account for the veneration in
which they were held. The Florentines who visited Bo-
logna and painted there left no permanent impression; a
native artist, Marco Zoppo, who studied at Padua (where
he was the rival of Mantegna) and afterwards at Venice,
introduced the arrangement of the Venetian altar-pieces in
some works subsequently done by him in Bologna; but the
early simplicity or severity was preferred perhaps as fitter
for religious subjects, and was rather confirmed than dis-
carded by the greatest painter of the first epoch, Francesco

The name of Prospero Fontana stands at the head of those who, living from the earlier to the latter part of the sixteenth century, and inheriting but little of the genius of the great masters, survived their own slender reputation to witness the rising fame of the Caracci. In the same class may be mentioned Passerotti, as the latest Bolognese painter alluded to by Vasari. The others may be passed over, with the exception of Denis Calvart, a native of Antwerp, who, after settling in Bologna, where he opened a school, not only had the honour of partly instructing Guido, Domenichino, and other celebrated Bolognese painters, but also of introducing that elevated style of landscape-painting which afterwards added a new lustre to the school in the hands of the Caracci, Domenichino, Grimaldi, and others.

Thus the imitation of the two great Florentine and Roman masters lasted with no other change than that of

Francia. This artist, who was contemporary with increasing mannerism or insipidity, till beyond the middle

and survived him some years according to Malvasia,

sixteenth century, about which time the followers of
(DONACIÓN PACHECO)
BIBLIOTECA

may be remarked that the efforts of Lodovico can hardly be considered so spontaneous and independent as the historians of art have commonly asserted. It has been already shown that a new impulse had manifested itself in the Roman and Florentine schools even previously to the revolution which the Caracci effected; and whatever may have been the origin of that impulse, the sudden rise of various and power. ful talents in Bologna may be considered a symptom rather than the cause of general improvement.

the elder Zuccaro in Rome and those of Bronzino in Florence may be ranked with the Fontanas and the Passerottis of Bologna. The characteristic excellence of the Venetian school had been occasionally blended with the other styles, but in general the influence of each was separate and exclusive: meanwhile, owing to the ascendancy of the two first, the imitation of Correggio can hardly be said to have extended uninterruptedly beyond his own date, since Parmigiano, who indeed rather holds the rank of an original master, survived him but a very few years. Baroccio may therefore be considered to have led the way, about 1565, not only in including Correggio among the great models proposed for imitation, but even in preferring him to the rest. The example thus set to the Roman school was followed soon after by Cigoli in Florence, viz. about 1580, a period which immediately precedes the dawning influence and fame of the Caracci. They too, from whatever cause, partook of the new admiration, and in their attempt to unite the excellences of the different schools, it was natural that a style, which had been hitherto in a great measure overlooked, should form a chief element of that eclectic perfection which was proposed as the object of attainment. Accordingly, the imitation of Correggio preponderates in the first works of these masters; and Annibale Caracci's letters from Parma prove that, like many other painters of the day, he consi-these consisted frequently of females and children in subjects dered the excellence of Correggio as a new discovery.

Among the numerous scholars of the Caracci, Domeni chino holds the first rank; but the merit of this painter was long unnoticed in Rome, where he resided some time, owing in some degree to the intrigues of his rivals. Poussin had the honour of bringing some of his best works into notice, and declared him to be, in his opinion, the greatest painter after Raphael. By some modern critics, too, he has been preferred to the Caracci themselves: his chief excellence, and that in which he approaches Raphael, is his expression. The graceful Albani, who left the school of Calvart for that of the Caracci, perhaps like Domenichino imbibed his taste in landscape from the Fleming: he communicated it to Francesco and Giovanni Battista Mola, who often suffered it to predominate in their own historical works, and who occasionally painted the landscape backgrounds to the figures of Albani: connected with poetry or allegory, and he excelled in them perhaps more than in sacred subjects. The more brilliant talents of Guido excited the jealousy of the Caracci from the beginning. Lodovico encouraged Guercino as a rival to him, and Domenichino was put forward, it is said, for no other reason, by Annibale in Rome. The light and silvery tone which is observable in some of Guido's best works is said to have been owing to an accidental expression of Annibale Caracci, who at a time when the dark style of Caravaggio excited general attention, and was imitated among others by Guido himself, remarked that the opposite treatment, with appropriate subjects, would perhaps be still more attractive. Caravaggio, who was born in the Milanese, and painted in Rome, Naples, and elsewhere, cannot be placed in the Bolognese school, which however he greatly influenced: he belongs to the successful innovators who, at the close of the sixteenth century, sought to oppose literal and unselected nature to the insipid imitation of the purer styles, and may be considered the chief representative of a class of painters called by the Italians the Naturalisti and the Tenebrosi. Among the painters of the Bolognese school Guercino, born at Cento, seems to have been most smitten with the vigorous effects of Caravaggio, although in his latest practice he acknowledged the charm of Guido's style by attempting to unite it, perhaps with little success, to his own. His dark pictures are generally his best, and he sometimes united the higher qualities of expression and of form with the magic of his relief. Both Caravaggio and Guercino studied in Venice, and the former particularly aimed at the style of Giorgione; yet their works, however admirable, present but few traces of Venetian principles, and this is to be accounted for by the spirit of innovation which manifested itself in every branch of the art, and which took the opposite of the vices of the day. The negative and somewhat heavy colour of the two masters alluded to was opposed to a florid and weak imitation of the colourists, the excesses of which are ridiculed by Boschini in his Carta del Navegar Pittoresco.

Lodovico Caracci, who had studied in Venice, Florence, and Parma, conceived the plan of introducing a new style, according to his biographers, when alone and unassisted, and it is said that he persuaded his younger cousins Agostino and Annibale to devote themselves to painting in order to aid him in effecting his purpose. He sent them, after well-grounded elementary studies, to Parma and Venice, from the latter of which schools it may be observed the Bolognese painters seem to have borrowed least. The first work of importance done after their return to Bologna was a series of compositions, representing the story of Jason, in an apartment of the Palazzo Fava: Lodovico himself assisted, but the greater part was the work of Annibale. The severe criticisms and opposition which this performance excited induced the Caracci to strengthen their party, and the famous school was opened which shortly attracted most of the rising painters who were studying with Denis Calvart, Cesi, and Fontana :-ample details as to the mode of study in the school of the Caracci may be found in Malvasia. The fame of these masters was soon after firmly established by their works; and Agostino, as an engraver as well as a painter, contributed to spread and sustain their name: but the enmity of the abettors of the old style was not completely silenced till the frescoes in the Palazzo Magnani were executed. Denis Calvart was the last to fall in with the general approbation; and it appears from Malvasia that his chief objection to the new mode of study was the constant reference to nature which was now deemed indispensable from this objection the previous state of the schools and the manner of the painters of Bologna may be

inferred.

Annibale Caracci repaired to Rome shortly before 1600, and painted in various churches; but his great work, the monument of his powers, and the specimen of the school most frequently quoted, although not perhaps the most characteristic, is the series of frescoes in the Farnese palace. In this work Agostino among others assisted: the Cephalus and the Galatea, according to Bellori, were painted entirely by him. The admirers of the antique and of the Roman school prefer this work even to Lodovico's performances in Bologna: Poussin and other painters, who visited Rome early in the seventeenth century, gave it the highest praise. The followers of Lodovico at Bologna were however true to the founder of the school: posterity seems to have confirmed the opinion, and to have decided that this great painter, with less academic power than Annibale, is more original in style. Sir Joshua Reynolds thus speaks of Lodovico Caracci: His unaffected breadth of light and shadow, the simplicity of his colouring, which, holding its proper rank, does not draw aside the least part of the attention from the subject, and the solemn effect of that twilight which seems diffused over his pictures, appear to me to correspond with grave and dignified subjects better than the more artificial brilliancy of sunshine which enlightens the pictures of

Titian.'

The principles and practice of the Caracci and their scholars superseded for a time every other style in Italy, yet it

Lanfranco, born at Parma, was another distinguished scholar of the Caracci, and assisted Annibale in the Farnese palace in Rome: his own great work, the cupola of St. Andrea della Valle in the same city, is the best specimen of his powers, and it is here that as a machinist (the term applied by the Italians to painters of large compositions on ceilings and in galleries) he aimed at the grandeur of manner and boldness of foreshortening which he had long studied in the works of Correggio at Parma,

Of the remaining disciples of the Caracci it may be sufficient to mention the names of Tiarini, Lionello Spada, and Cavedone. All the more noted scholars before mentioned had numerous followers, and perhaps none more than Guido. In these the manner of the respective masters naturally degenerated, and no new talent arose. The taste in landscape which the Caracci introduced or improved was inherited and almost exclusively practised by Giovanni Battista Viola, the Grimaldi, and others: the most perfect specimens of this branch of art, as practised in the school, are however to be sought in the works of Domenichino and Annibale Caracci.