peace, guard against and punish all breaches of it, superintend the prisons, and execute all commands emanating from the higher officers. Registers of deeds are often chosen for five years by the whole body of voters. The duties of officers are minutely prescribed; and in the justices of the peace, and especially in the meetings composed of several of them, there is a peculiar means for compelling the officers to perform their duties. The functions of coroners and constables are similar to those of the same officers in England. In direct opposition to the institutions of many other countries, the community is the source and the life, the punctum saliens, of every common public undertaking. It is entirely independent in all matters that relate to itself alone; for example, buying, selling, laying taxes, conducting law-suits, &c. The community of inhabitants or voters elects for every considerable department of business special officers (usually for a year), and even furnishes them to the state for certain purposes; while it no where asks or permits the interference of the state-officers. The town-officers frequently receive no fixed salary, and have no prospect of further advancement; but they are paid according to the particular services rendered, and return after the expiration of their term of office, unless re-elected, to the body of their fellow-citizens. The following is taken from the laws of Massachusetts. In the town-meetings every one is entitled to vote, who is twenty-one years of age, has resided a year in the town, is not a pauper, and pays a tax. The selectmen elected by the citizens appoint the meetings, and make known publicly the precise objects for which they are held. What ten or more voters propose in writing must be taken into consideration. If the town-officers do not perform their duty in this matter, a justice of the peace may at the request of ten or more qualified persons call a town-meeting. A moderator is chosen to preside. He gives permission to speak, and all others must quietly listen; disorderly and disobedient persons are removed and punished. In these town-meetings all the necessary town-officers are chosen for a year by ballot. No one is obliged to fill the same office two years in succession. The presiding officer is often re-elected, and so remains in office for two, four, or six years. The citizens are obliged to serve in the city-watch, unless they prefer to pay the cost of a substitute. The town-clerk keeps a record of births and deaths. .* Similar regulations are found in all the states, and the principles of organization are substantially the same for all the cities such as the general right of suffrage, a mayor, two coun* The selectmen are in the towns nearly what the aldermen and council are in the cities. cils, and several subordinate officers, most of whom are elected for one year. In order however to a better understanding of the subject, I will enter more particularly into the institutions and circumstances of a few of the cities; from which some further general conclusions may be drawn. The city of Baltimore had in 1840, 102,000 inhabitants; which number has since increased to 164,000. It is at present divided into fourteen wards, and governed by a mayor and a council of two branches. For the first or lowest branch all the citizens of a ward choose annually by ballot two persons, 21 years of age, residents of the city for three or more years, and possessing a property of not less than $300. For the second or highest branch the citizens of a ward choose every two years one member 25 years of age, 4 years a resident, and possessing a property of $500. The mayor, who holds his office for two years, must be twenty-five years of age, a resident of the state for ten years, and of Baltimore for five; he must possess a property of $500 value, and receives a salary of $2,000. He is empowered to lay before the council proposals for laws and administration, to the adoption of which a vote of two-thirds is requisite. Exact lists are made of those entitled to vote, and perjury in this respect is punished with from two to five years' imprisonment. Newly made citizens must present in time the necessary proofs of their claims. Notwithstanding these well contrived regulations, many abuses still take place at the polls; accordingly severe penalties are inflicted in case of illegal or double voting, and one half of the amount goes to the informer. The police regulations respecting all matters that occur are remarkably complete and judicious; e. g. respecting the harbor, the streets, lighting, fires, gunpowder, cleanliness, health, inns, markets, theatres, gambling, wells, aqueducts, pumps, railroads, carriages, measures, weights, chimneys, street-music (prohibited), the observance of Sunday, stamping of silver, privies, dogs, swine, &c. Police laws are transgressed in Baltimore, as every where else. For instance, rewards are offered for taking up and killing dogs and hogs found running in the streets. So soon however as the money is exhausted (in the first months of the year), those persecuted animals are at liberty; and I saw as early as in May several large sows busily engaged in street-cleaning. The mayor brings forward another complaint in his official report: viz. that unmannerly boys at all times, and especially on Sunday, disturb quiet citizens by unseemly noises; and that the day and night watch are not sufficient to find out, apprehend, and punish them. For more serious cases there is organized a city-guard, which bitter experience shows to be necessary; and these have precise directions how to proceed in case of riot. If the authorities have not done every thing in their power to protect the innocent, the latter are indemnified at the public expense. The city revenue is raised from the market receipts, harbor and ship dues, licenses, the dog and water-tax; but chiefly by a property-tax. The valuations of individuals are here tested by assessors elected for the purpose, and from them there is an appeal to higher commissioners. There are taken into the account farms, houses with their appurtenances, household furniture, silver, slaves, and all personal property. The necessaries of life, tools and farming implements, clothing, and all property under forty dollars value, are exempt from taxation. Very lately proposals have been made for more rapidly enforcing the payment of arrears that have improperly accumulated. The value of taxable property has most rapidly increased. In 1839, it amounted to $56,000,000; in 1842, to $68,000,000. This increase is shown also by the great number of houses newly built. In 1837 there were erected 368 houses. The property-tax is not the same in all years; it rose from 60 to 85 cents on the $100, that is, less than one per cent.; and it would not exceed 13 per cent., to accomplish all the undertakings now partly laid aside. The city debt has grown to $5,325,000; of which the greater part pays an interest of 6 per cent., and about a fifth 5 per cent. Of this gross amount $4,967,000 were expended for great internal improvements, as harbor, the canals, and rail-roads; which are already useful, and will speedily become profitable also. The property-tax amounted in the year 1844 to 77 cents on the $100. This was raised under the following heads: The entire yearly expenditure (including the various improve ments and the interest of the debt) is very great; the current expenses of the city however amount to only $229,000. Among them are: for harbor improvements, administration and salaries, lighting and the city watch, cleaning and improving the streets, institutions belonging to the health department, $19,000 38,000 50,000 15,000 4,000, &c. In Boston the majority of qualified voters annually elect a mayor, eight aldermen, forty-eight councillors, a city clerk, and some other officers. Every one is entitled to vote who is twentyone years old, has been a resident of the state for at least one year and of the city for six months, and has paid taxes or is legally exempt from them. The mayor is president of the council of aldermen, but has no veto; one branch of the council however has this right in respect to the other. Both boards have the power of projecting laws, levying taxes, laying out the public money, and regulating all matters of general interest. In these respects there is no direct appeal to the body of the citizens in the course of the year. Their right of election suffices; though they may apply to the mayor and aldermen for an extra meeting, and procure assent to a desired measure. The mayor grants all licenses, and appoints many officers or nominates them to the boards. The city derives its income from the renting of farms, the letting of houses, stalls, &c. By far the largest amount is procured from the property-tax of about 60 cents on the $100. The entire income and outlay amount to about $700,000; and the debt of the city to about $1,423,000, mostly at 5 per cent. interest, and a little at 4 and 6 per cent. In the year 1843, $94,000 of the debt were paid. The police-laws and also the regulations for the assessment of property are similar to those of Baltimore. Paid firemen are substituted for volunteer companies; and the consequence has been greater order and obedience. Still in 1843 there were 232 alarms of fire, and the loss amounted to $128,000. Much has been already done in various ways for embellishing the city; and it is to be hoped that the immediate neighborhood of the lofty Bunker Hill Monument will soon be included in the list. Some years ago the voluntary contributions and gifts which had up to that time been made in Boston for public and benevolent objects of all kinds, amounted to $1,801,000; in one period of eighteen months the amount subscribed for these purposes was $250,000. In Charleston, twelve aldermen and a mayor are annually elected by all the citizens, and re-elections are frequent. There is no second board. The city debt pays from 5 to 6 per cent. interest. New York was first colonized by the Dutch in 1609. In 1674 it fell into the hands of the English; in 1686 it received its first charter, and in 1732 a second charter from George the Second, which gave the citizens many privileges, but allowed the governor appointed by the king a veto upon every measure. In the year 1844 the city (exclusive of Brooklyn) numbered 364,000 inhabitants. For each one of the 17 wards the citizens elect annually by universal suffrage one member for the board of aldermen, one for that of assistant aldermen, and a mayor who .receives a salary of $3,000. No alderman receives pay, and none is allowed to engage in any profitable city business or undertakings. The meetings of the boards are all public, unless in particular cases a secret meeting should seem indispensably necessary. They publish the resolutions and even the several votes. All laws, resolutions, &c. are passed by both boards and then transmitted to the mayor. He has the right to return them with his objections. After a second deliberation a majority of the two boards decides. For the preparation of particular measures, numerous committees are appointed, chiefly by the mayor, who is also a member of each. He provides for the maintenance of order and the laws, and makes at least once a year a general report on the progress city legislation and administration. of The city revenues are derived from ground-rents, booths, market-stalls, house and water rents, &c.; but the tax on property is here also the chief source of income. The taxable real estate amounts to $164,000,000, the personal to $64,000,000, and the sum raised (from 70 to 80 cents on the $100) to about $1,750,000. Among the expenses I particularize the following: for schools, $76,000 the poor, the prisons, and hospitals, 251,000 the fire-department, the police, printing and binding, salaries, 45,000 50,000 27,000 51,000 23,000 51,000, &c. The usual receipts and expenses amount to about $2,185,000; what with loans, arrears, supplies on hand, and under extraordinary circumstances, they have sometimes risen to $5,000,000. The city has now a debt of $13,322,000, of which $12,000,000 were incurred for the great water-works. The receipts from these works must speedily increase with the increase in the number of houses. There were built, |