not intended to supersede, but to aid, the proper work of both teacher and pupil. The notes are seldom critical, and they are always brief.

The author describes his work in the sub-title as A Tale of Flodden Field." In his preface he said more particularly, “The present story turns upon the private adventures of a fictitious character, but is called 'A Tale of Flodden Field,' because the hero's fate is connected with that memorable defeat, and the causes which led to it." In the same preface he speaks of it as "a romantic tale,” and “an attempt to paint the manners of the feudal times."

A romantic tale of which the hero is a fictitious person must not be regarded as history, but it may be expected to truly picture the spirit and manners of the time. Scott's success in doing this is universally confessed. It is a true picture of life and incidents that might easily have been based upon historical facts and conditions that were actual. Imaginary persons are made to live in, and to be a part of, a real world and a real society, as not being strangers to the one or the other, or false to the possibilities of human nature. To accomplish this successfully is the art of the writers of romance, poetry, novels, and the drama, as distinguished from the art of chroniclers and historians.

The battle of Flodden is an historical battle, which was fought between the English and the Scotch on the 9th of September, 1513, just about twenty-one years after the discovery of America by Columbus. This poem, therefore, describes a state of things existing in England and Scotland in that era of the world. Scotland's King, and the flower of its chivalry, were slain on that field, and England obtained a signal victory. Some of the circumstances of this battle related by Scott as, for example.

the error of tactics by which the King of Scotland recklessly abandoned to the English the strongest position—are historically true.

Throughout the poem there are incidents which are matters of historic record; but the author, who was writing a fictitious story, uses these to suit his purpose, even when in fact they did not occur at the precise time, or in the order or manner, of his representation. Examples of this dealing with history are referred to in the notes. It is a liberty or license permitted to writers of fiction, just as there is permitted to poets a license, to violate certain conventional forms of words and grammatical constructions to which writers of prose are expected to conform, or allowed to painters who compose an ideal landscape to bring together features of actual landscapes that are really separated.

Scott wrote several similar romantic tales in verse, which in their form were different from anything that had been previously attempted. The first in order is entitled "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," a title which happily suggests the origin and development of their form from that of the ancient ballads. A ballad is a popular narrative poem adapted to be sung or recited. In almost all the older nations the important incidents of their early history were preserved, before the art of printing became common, by means of ballads composed and sung (or recited) by poets or minstrels. These minstrels were often attached to the households of kings and lords, but sometimes wandered from place to place, making their livelihood by entertaining the people with their compositions. The best of these productions were preserved from generation to generation by memory. Commonly a ballad treated only of a single theme. To be popular and easily remembered, it had to be composed in a style attract

ive to the ear, that is, in some simple, natural rhythm,

well as to treat of a subject which was dear to the people.

as

Scotland was especially rich in these ballads celebrating its heroes and their deeds. Scott was a great lover of them, and he spent much of his time, when a young man, traveling through the country, and writing them down as they were repeated to him. He published a collection of them in three volumes, adding some new ones composed by himself. It was after this apprenticeship, so to speak, in the art of a particular style of poetry, that he wrote the long narrative poem in easy eight-syllabled verses, describing an elaborate series of romantic incidents, which he called "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," thus placing himself in the honorable class of the ballad-makers who celebrated his native land. This poem was wonderfully success

ful in Scotland and in England.

His next attempt in the same line was this poem entitled "Marmion," which is now regarded by most critics as the best of the series, and one of the best narrative poems in the English language. It describes the life and manners of an age so different from ours, that its interest as a romance increases rather than lessens with its age. It is true that the beginning of the sixteenth century was the period of the decline of feudalism; but its essential spirit, and also its substantial forms, endured in northern England and in Scotland after they had yielded to the modern order in some other places. The proud and fierce spirit of the rival chiefs of the Scottish clans, and the almost constant warfare prevailing on the Border, contributed to perpetuate the military and social conditions peculiar to feudal civilization. The centers of influence were the castles of lords, and the monasteries of abbots and abbesses. The tests of character were fidelity to

War was es

military chiefs and to the chiefs of the Church. teemed the noblest occupation for men. Superstition was every

where prevalent.

Honor was cherished by the few who were

presumed to be capable of possessing honor, it being rather a birthright of the privileged few than a quality of the subject many. Religion tolerated and enforced cruel barbarities: liberty was a license to do injustice and indulge oppression.

In spite of all this strangeness of conditions, the young reader of the poem will not fail to perceive that the persons of this tale were actuated and controlled by motives which he can understand; which are, in truth, such as he feels in his own heart, and discovers in the conduct of those about him. While most of them are creatures of the imagination, they are very human,they awaken respect, admiration, and love, or suspicion, contempt, and hatred, as real men and women do, and their acts are consistent with their characters. These are qualities of the work which recommended it to his contemporaries, which recommend it to our liking, and which will secure for it a permanent fame.

The events of this story occur in southern Scotland and northern England,—a region with which the author was thoroughly familiar, having been accustomed from early life to wander over the ground which centuries of strife had made historic, and to observe carefully all features of the unchanging scene. His descriptions of localities, therefore, are in their detail worthy of confidence; and his rank as a vivid delineator of natural scenery is among the first of English poets.

The region of southern Scotland is called the Scotch Lowlands, in distinction from the Scotch Highlands in the central

and northern portion of the country; but it is itself a region picturesque in its varied surface of hills and valleys, although the hills are neither so high nor so rugged as in the Highlands. South of the Border the country is hardly less broken and varied in its natural characteristics.

In the time of which Scott writes, the distinctions between the inhabitants of the Highlands and those of the Lowlands, and between either and the people of England, were more marked than they are now. The intimacy of association which long peace, common interests, and modern facilities of intercourse, have fostered, has brought about changes of dress, manners, and customs; so that the Scotch are now distinguished from their southern neighbors chiefly by their inherited physical features and peculiarities of speech. These differences are more marked in the peasantry of the two sections than in the wealthy and more cultivated classes, and are not so great as those formerly existing between the Highlanders and the Lowlanders.

The Highlanders spoke a language called "Erse" (Irish) or Gaelic," which was a Celtic dialect distinct from English. They wore a short coat and waistcoat; a kilt, called also "fillibeg" (which was a short petticoat reaching to the knees); and short hose, that left the legs bare. Their garments were usually of tartan, a checkered or plaided woolen cloth. The language of the Lowlanders resembled the English, but had some peculiarities.

In the time of the Roman domination of the world, Scotland was inhabited by tribes of savage hunters and shepherds, who lived in huts, and went nearly naked. The Romans called the country "Caledonia." They tried to conquer it, but were less successful than in England. In the fifth century the Saxons