measure honour or dishonour by the assurance of his wellinformed conscience, rather than by the malicious report and censure of others,) yet it may be excused, since he had before his eyes the injustice of his people, and had well understood that a wicked sentence is infinitely worse than a wicked fact, as being held a precedent and pattern whereby oppression beginning upon one, is extended as warrantable upon all. Therefore his fear of wrongful condemnation was such, as a constant man could not easily have overmastered; but when afterwards the army having no other expectation of safety than the faint hope of a secret flight, he was so terrified with an eclipse of the moon, happening when they were about to dislodge, that he would not consent to have the camp break up till seven and twenty days were past. His timorousness was even as foolish and ridiculous as the issue of it was lamentable. For he should not have thought that the power of the heavens, and the course of nature, would be as unjust as his Athenians, or might pretend less evil to the slothful, than to such as did their best. Neither do I think that any astrologer can allege this eclipse, as either a cause or prognostication of that army's destruction, otherwise than as the folly of men did, by application, turn it to their own confusion. Had C. Cassius the Roman, he who slew Julius Cæsar, imitated this superstition of Nicias, he had surely found the same fortune in a case very like. But when he retiring, the broken remainder of Crassus's army defeated by the Parthian archers, was advised, upon such an accident as this, to continue where he then was, till the sun were past the sign of Scorpio, he made answer, that he stood not in such fear of Scorpio as of Sagittarius. So adventuring rather to abide the frowning of the heavens, than the nearer danger of enemies upon earth, he made such a safe and honourable retreat, as did both shew his noble resolution, and give a fair example to that good rule, Sapiens dominabitur astris.

Thus we see that God, who ordinarily works by a concatenation of means, deprives the governors of understanding when he intends evil to the multitude; and that the wick

edness of unjust men is the ready mean to weaken the virtue of those who might have done them good.

SECT. IX.

Of the troubles whereinto the state of Athens fell after the great loss of the fleet and army in Sicilia.

THE loss of this army was the ruin of the Athenian dominion, and may be well accounted a very little less calamity to that estate than was the subversion of the walls, when the city, about seven years after, was taken by Lysander. For now began the subjects of the Athenian estate to rebel, of whom, some they reduced under their obedience, others held out; some, for fear of greater inconvenience, were set at liberty, promising only to be their good friends, as formerly they had been their subjects; others, having a kind of liberty offered by the Athenians, were not therewith contented, but obtained a true and perfect liberty by force. Among these troubles, it fell out very unseasonably, that the principal men of Athens, being wearied with the people's insolency, took upon them to change the form of that estate, and bring the government into the hands of a few. To which purpose, conspiring with the captains which were abroad, they caused them to set up the form of an aristocraty in the towns of their confederates; and in the mean time, some that were most likely to withstand this innovation being slain at Athens, the commonalty were so dismayed that none durst speak against the conspirators, whose number they knew not, but every man was afraid of his neighbour, lest he should be a member of the league. In this general fear, the majesty of Athens was usurped by four hundred men, who observing in show the ancient form of proceeding, did cause all matters to be propounded unto the people, and concluded upon by the greater part of voices: but the things propounded were only such as were first allowed in private among themselves; neither had the commonalty any other liberty, than only to approve and give consent; for whosoever presumed any further was quickly despatched out of the way, and no in

quiry made of the murder. By these means were many decrees made, all tending to the establishment of this new authority, which nevertheless endured not long. For the fleet and army which then was at the isle of Samos, did altogether detest these dealings of the four hundred usurpers, and held them as enemies; whereupon they revoked Alcibiades out of banishment, and by his assistance procured that the supplies, which the Persian king had promised unto the Lacedæmonians, were by Tissaphernes' lieutenant made unprofitable, through the slow and bad performance. Alcibiades had at the first been very well entertained in Sparta, whilst his service done to that state was not grown to be the object of envy. But when it appeared that in counsel and good performance he so far excelled all the Lacedæmonians, that all their good success was ascribed to his wit and valour, then were all the principal citizens weary of his virtue, especially Agis one of their kings, whose wife had so far yielded herself to the love of this Athenian, that among her inward friends she could not forbear to call her young child by his name. Hereupon order was taken that Alcibiades should be killed out of the way. But he discovering the Spartan treachery, conveyed himself unto Tissaphernes, whom he so bewitched with his great beauty, sweet conversation, and sound wit, that he soon became the master of that barbarous viceroy's affections, who had free power to dispose the great king's treasures and forces in those parts. Then began he to advise Tissaphernes not so far forth to assist the Lacedæmonians that they should quite overthrow the state of Athens, but rather to help the weaker side, and let them one consume another, whereby all should fall at length into the hands of the Persian. By this counsel he made way to other practices, wherein by strength of his reputation (as the only favourite of so great a potentate) he played his own game, procuring his restitution. At length his banishment being repealed by the army, but not by the citizens, (who then were oppressed by the four hundred,) he laboured greatly to reconcile the soldiers to the governors, or at least to divert their heat an

other way, and turn it upon the common enemy. Some of the four hundred approved his motion, as being weary of the tyranny whereof they were partakers, partly because they saw it could not long endure, and partly for that themselves, being less regarded by the rest of their companions than stood with their good liking, sought to acquit themselves of it as honestly as they might. But the most of that faction laboured to obtain peace of the Lacedæmonians, desiring chiefly to maintain both their own authority and the greatness of their city, if they might; but if this could not be, they did rather wish to preserve their own power, or safety at least, than the good estate of the commonwealth. Therefore they made sundry overtures of peace to the Lacedæmonians, desiring to compound in as good terms as they might, and affirming that they were fitter to be trusted than the wavering multitude; especially considering that the city of Sparta was governed by an aristocraty, to which form they had now reduced Athens. All these passages between the four hundred (or the most and chief of them) and the Lacedæmonians were kept as secret as might be. For the city of Athens, hoping, without any great cause, to repair their losses, was not inclined to make composition; from which upon juster ground the enemy was much more averse, trusting well that the discord of the Athenians (not unknown abroad) might yield some fair opportunity to the destruction of itself, which in effect (though not then presently) came to pass. And upon this hope king Agis did sometimes bring his forces from Decelea to Athens, where doing no good, he received some small losses. Likewise the navy of Peloponnesus made show of attempting the city, but seeing no likelihood of success, they bent their course from thence to other places, where they obtained victories, which in the better fortune of the Athenians might more lightly have been regarded than in this their decayed estate. Yet it seems, without any disparagement to their wisdom, they should rather have forborne to present unto the city, or to the countries near adjoining, any terror of the war. For the dissension within the walls might soon have done

more hurt than could be received from the fleet or army without, which indeed gave occasion to set the citizens at unity, though it lasted not very long. The four hundred, by means of these troubles, were fain to resign their authority, which they could not now hold, when the people having taken arms to repel foreign enemies, would not lay them down till they had freed themselves from such as oppressed the state at home. Yet was not this alteration of government a full restitution of the sovereign command unto the people, or whole body of the city, but only to five thousand; which company the four hundred (when their authority began) had pretended to take unto them as assistants; herein seeming to do little wrong or none to the commonalty, who seldom assembled in greater number. But now when the highest power was come indeed into the hands of so many, it was soon agreed that Alcibiades and his companions should be recalled from exile, and that the army at Samos should be requested to undertake the government; which was forthwith reformed according to the soldiers' desire.

SECT. X.

How Alcibiades won many important victories for the Athenians; was recalled from exile, made their general, and again deposed.

THIS establishment of things in the city was accompanied with some good success in the wars. For the Lacedæmonians were about the same time overthrown at sea, in a great battle, by the Athenian fleet which had remained at Samos, to which Alcibiades afterwards joining such forces as he could raise, obtained many victories. Before the town of Abydus, his arrival with eighteen ships gave the honour of a great battle to the Athenians; he overthrew and utterly destroyed the fleet of the Lacedæmonians, commanded by Mindarus, took the towns of Cyzicus and Perinthus, made the Selymbrians ransom their city, and fortified Chrysopolis. Hereupon letters were sent to Sparta, which the Athenians intercepting found to contain the distress of the