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CHAPTER IV.

PRACTICAL RULES FOR DRAWING.

Excellence in drawing essential--RULES FOR DRAWING-I. Practice must be gradual and progressive — Proneness to undue haste-II. The work to be done must be pre-considered-III. Exact observance of rules, imperative—IV. A regular order of construction, required—(1) Point of commencement-(2) Proper movement (3) Completion of figures-V. The crossing of lines or figures, inadmissible—VI. The æsthetic to be constantly regarded— General deficiency in this direction-The rules enforced by individual experience.

ASIDE from the general rules already given, for the proper construction of the diagrams according to their symbolical office-work, there are certain specific directions which relate to the mere matter of graphic execution, or drawing, and which, in their just observance, bear more directly upon the pupil's success in the use of the diagrams, than is commonly supposed. Too many, from a natural lack of artistic taste, or from acquired habits of carelessness, fancy that, in the construction of diagrams, as in writing, making figures, mapping, or drawing, if the work is done with sufficient exactness to indicate the required facts in analysis, it is of little importance whether it possesses any artistic excellence whatever.

EXCELLENCE IN DRAWING ESSENTIAL.

And yet, here, as in everything else belonging to graphic art, there is demanded an excellence beyond that

of mere representative consistency. The best culture of the pupil's hand and eye; his highest interest and pleasure in the work executed; and even the greatest clearness in any extended diagram as a symbol of the analysis, require that it should be characterized by symmetry in arrangement, just proportions or magnitude, precision in form and connection, and neatness and firmness in drawing. Without these, or without growing excellence in 'their direction, the diagrams will be sure to become, both to the learner and to the observer, not merely defective, but oftentimes positively repulsive. Thus they will come to be disliked or condemned, not for their own fault, but for the failure in execution, of him who pretends to use them.

RULES FOR DRAWING.

Let the pupil, then, be held strictly to the observance of the following practical rules for drawing :

I.-Practice must be Gradual and Progressive. First. The first practice in drawing diagrams must, like exercise in analysis, begin with the simplest elements, or in other words, with the figures applicable to the simplest sentences only. It is as unreasonable in the 'drawing of diagrams, as in penmanship, mapping, or linear drawing, to suppose that the pupil can advantageously begin with the more advanced and complicated forms. This practice must be gradual and progressive, advancing from the simpler forms to those more complicated, only as each successive element has been mastered.

PRONENESS TO UNDUE HASTE, A COMMON EVIL.

One of the greatest obstacles to the pupil's success is to

be found in this very direction. Because, in some sort or other, the diagrams can be dashed off with apparent ease, his tendency is to hurry forward to the analysis of sentences involving diagrams for which he is not yet prepared, and in the construction of which, he will become so confused through his own ignorance or inaccuracy, that he will even fail on points, with the right treatment of which he is really acquainted. And this evil is especially characteristic of those who, with little graphic culture, are somewhat ready in analysis. They forget that, as a theoretical knowledge may be acquired, without a corresponding power of expression, so a certain command of the logical side of analysis may be attained, without a corresponding skill on the representative side. Hence they fail to recognise the fact that this art-culture is only to be secured through a patient and progressive artpractice.

II.-The Work to be done must be Pre-considered.

Secondly. Let the character of every element to be drawn in diagram be carefully considered beforehand, so that the position and proportions of the various parts of the diagram may be skillfully adjusted in the light of an intelligent preconception of the entire work to be done. As in the verbal presentation of logical analysis, so in its symbolization in diagrams, let nothing be expressed without such antecedent and comprehensive thought as shall secure a just harmony between every judgment as to particulars, and the general conclusions as to the whole. The analysis represented in the diagrams is not intuitive, it is logical; it is not an act, but a process; it is not fragmentary, but continuous. It is, hence, no mere work of glancing at points, jumping at conclusions, or slashing

through forms. Hence, then, the sooner the teacher corrects such ideas in the pupil, the better it will be for both.

III-Exact Observance of Rules imperative.

Thirdly. Every element in the diagrams must, in form, combination, order, attachment, and connection, be drawn according to the rules, invariably and exactly. Pupils are prone to consult a supposed ease in drawing, or to give loose rein to their own crude fancies, and thus they take unwarrantable and destructive license in the construction of diagrams. If, in accordance with the pernicious doctrine so current, of giving the substance of things without regard to the exact form, they have the various figures drawn substantially correct, that contents them. And so their diagrams, like their figures in mathematics, or their penmanship, or their maps, are, for very deformity, the likeness of nothing in the heavens above, or the earth beneath, or the waters under the earth.

IV.—A regular Order of Construction required.

Fourthly. Figures which are similar should always be drawn from one regular starting point, with the same steady and continuous sweep of the hand, with the same prevailing curves, and with the same exact completion or attachment.

(1). POINT OF COMMENCEMENT.

The proper point of commencement for all complete figures is at the extreme left point, or the middle of the left extreme, as this is the natural point of commencement in writing the elements included; it leads to the proper forward motion of the hand in drawing; and it is best calculated to secure an exact connection of the related figures.

(2). PROPER MOVEMENT.

For all such elliptical figures, also, the proper motion is from the point of commencement, upward and onward to the right, and then downward and by a reversed stroke to the left. Never begin with the downward motion, constructing the lower line first. And, as far as is practicable, draw every figure and line with a continuous sweep. Never resort to the vicious practice of drawing parallel straight lines, and patching up the ends with fragmentary curves. Apply such a method to the construction of capitals in penmanship, and see how ridiculous will be the result. But, it is no less unnecessary, and no less inelegant and mischievous, in the former case than in the latter.

(3). COMPLETION OF FIGURES.

Still further, let complete figures be neatly finished. Do not carelessly dash up the closing portion of a figure, leaving the ends of the lines either disconnected, running over each other, or bulging out in inconsistent curves or swollen joints.

The same general rules apply to the construction of incomplete figures. The minor variations necessary will suggest themselves, and will, in all thoughtful drawing, substantially harmonize with the general rules.

V.-The Crossing of Lines or Figures inadmissible.

Fifthly. In drawing lines of connection between principal and subordinate propositions, it is a cardinal law that one line must never cross another line or figure. Subordinate elements of this kind must be skillfully disposed to the right and the left, below, so as to be readily connected with their principals, by the waved lines, with

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