SYNTHESIS.

Synthesis is that division of Syntax which treats of the construction of sentences from words, according to principles called Rules of Syntax.

In Syntax, words relate to others, show relation between words, agree, govern, connect, depend, or are independent.

1. A word relates to another, when it is used to describe that word, or to limit or qualify its meaning.

Articles, adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and participles, relate principally to nouns or pronouns; and adverbs, to verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

2. A word shows relation, when it associates with some preceding word the idea expressed by the word which follows it.

Prepositions show the relation between nouns and pronouns princi pally and some preceding word.

3. A word agrees with another, when the two words are similar in one or more properties common to both.

Personal and relative pronouns, and verbs, agree principally with nouns or pronouns.

4. A word governs another, when the former determines the form or case of the latter.

Verbs, participles, and prepositions, govern other words, principally nouns or pronouns.

5. A word connects, when it unites words in the same construction or when it unites parts of a sentence, or sentences.

Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs connect.

6. A word depends upon another, when the former is used to com plete the sense or application of the latter.

Verbs in the infinitive mode depend upon other words, principally upon verbs, adjectives, or nouns.

7. A word is independent, when it has no grammatical connection with any other word.

Interjections, certain adverbs, and sometimes other parts of speech, are independent.

RULES OF SYNTAX.

I. SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB.-A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative

case.

II. NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.—A noun or a pronoun whose case does not depend upon its connection with any other word, is in the nominative case independent.

III. POSSESSIVE CASE.-A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case limits the word used as the name of the thing possessed.

IV. OBJECTIVE CASE.-A noun or a pronoun which is the object of an action or of a relation, is in the objective

case.

V. APPOSITION.-A noun or a pronoun put in apposition with another is in the same case.

VI. SAME CASE AFTER VERB.-A noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive verb, or a verb in the passive voice, is in the same case as the noun or the pronoun preceding the verb and meaning the same person or thing.

VII. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.-A personal pronoun agrees with the noun which it represents, in number, person, and gender.

VIII. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.-A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number, person, and gender.

IX. ARTICLES.-An article relates to the noun which it limits in meaning.

X. ADJECTIVES.-An adjective relates to the noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits.

XI. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.-A pronominal adjective relates to the noun which it limits,—or agrees with

the noun which it represents, in number, person, and gender.

XII. AGREEMENT OF FINITE VERBS.-A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person.

XIII. INFINITIVES.-A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon the word which it limits or completes in meaning.

XIV. PARTICIPLES.-A participle relates to the noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits.

XV. ADVERBS.-An adverb relates to the verb, the adjective, or the other adverb, which it qualifies.

XVI. PREPOSITIONS.-A preposition shows the relation between the noun or the pronoun which follows it and some preceding word.

XVII. CONJUNCTIONS.-A conjunction connects the words, the parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is placed.

XVIII. INTERJECTIONS. An interjection has no grammatical dependence upon any other word.

RULE I.-SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB.

A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative case.

NOTES.

1. The subject of a verb may be a verb in the infinitive mode, a part of a sentence, a sentence, or any word, used as a noun in the nominative case; as, “To sleep is refreshing."- "That the earth is round, was denied by the ancients."—"Them is often incorrectly used for those."—"Never despair,' is a good motto."

2. Several nouns, pronouns, infinitives, phrases, or clauses, may be subjects of the same verb; as, "Wealth, fame, and happiness, were his."-"To walk humbly, to deal justly, and to show mercy, are required of all."

3. Nouns in the first, or in the second person, are never the subjects of finite verbs. (Rule V., Note 1.)

4. A noun and the pronoun representing it are sometimes improperly used as subjects of the same verb; as, "The sky it was obscured with clouds;" - omit it, and say, "The sky was obscured, etc."

5. Every nominative, except when used independently (Rule 2), or after the verb (Rule 6), or in apposition (Rule 5), is the subject of some verb mentioned or understood.

6. The subject is generally placed before the verb; as, “They never fail who die in a good cause.”

The following instances are exceptions:

I. When a question is asked, without the use of an interrogative as the subject; as, "Where is he, about whom you spoke?"

II. When a verb in the imperative mode is used; as, "Depart (thou) in peace."

III. When a verb in the subjunctive mode is used without a conjunction mentioned; as, "Were wisdom to be had for the wishing, all would be wise."

IV. When a verb in the potential mode is used to express an earnest wish; as, "May peace and plenty abound within our borders." V. When the adverb there is used before the verb; as, "There is one thing that happeneth to all men.”

VI. When emphasis is used; as, “On rolled the tide of war." VII. When words quoted are introduced or separated by the verbs say, answer, reply, etc.; as, "Truth,' said the soothsayer, 'can neither be bought nor sold.""

VIII. In poetry; as,

"From crag to crag leaps the thunder.”

EXERCISE I.-Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the note for each correction:

MODEL 1.-"Him who expects to succeed in life, must be industrious." This sentence is incorrect, because him, which is a pronoun in the objective case, is used as the subject of the finite verb must be; but, according to Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, etc." Therefore him should be he, and the sentence should be, "He who expects to succeed in life must be industrious."

2.-"The moon it shed its pale beams o'er the landscape."

This sentence is incorrect, because moon and the pronoun it, which represents it, are used as subjects of the same verb; but, according to Note under

Rule I., "A noun and the pronoun, etc." Therefore it should be omitted, and the sentence should be, "The moon shed her pale beams o'er the landscape."

1. Him who was once so cheerful is now quite depressed. 2. Happy is him alone who depends not upon the pleasures of this world for his enjoy.. ment. 3. Our teachers said that she and me were seldom disobedient. 4. Whom do you think did the mischief? Him, certainly. 5. Them, and them only who are virtuous, can deserve respect. 6. The boat was pushed off from the brink, and him and his dog were left alone in the forest. 7. How much older are you than us? 8. When the ship struck, us sailors took to the long-boat, and the vessel began to fill immediately. 9. I love them that love me, and them that seek me early shall find me. 10. "Point out the man," said the judge, "whom you say committed the robbery."

11. Who wishes to merit the praise of his teacher? Me. 12. Justice it is represented as being blind. 13. Him and his friend were almost inseparable. 14. Whom dost thee regard most blamable, him or his brother? 15. The man he was disliked by his companions. 16. Dishonesty however well it may prosper for a time, yet justice will finally prevail. 17. I can not endure as much as thee. 18. Alexander, whom by his genius had conquered nearly all the whole world, he wept because there were no other worlds to conquer. 19. This is the boy whom we think deserved the reward. 20. Death it must come to the rich and to the poor.

EXERCISE II.—Parse the subjects in the following sentences:—

MODEL 1.-"Huge icebergs surrounded the vessel."

Icebergs.-Icebergs surrounded.-"Icebergs" is a common noun, in the plural number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb surrounded, according to Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative case."

2. "To study is not always pleasant."

To study. To study is.-"To study" is an intransitive verb, regular (pres. study, past studied, perf. part. studied);—in the infinitive mode, present tense; it is used as a noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb is, according to Note under Rule I., "The subject of a verb may be, etc."

1. Old men go to Death, but Death comes to young men. 2. Politeness and respect will secure friends. 3. To know our ignorance is the height of wisdom. 4. Many men seem great, only because their associates are little. 5. To avoid the errors of the foolish, requires constant watchfulness. 6. Thus passed from its tenement of clay, a soul fitted for the company of angels.