3. An equivalent word or expression introduced by or; as, “Arith metic, or the science of numbers, was introduced into Europe by the Arabians."

4. Repeated words or phrases; as, "Treason, treason, treason,' reechoed from every part of the house."

5. A clause introducing a short quotation, ending it, or separating its parts; as, "Truth,' said the speaker, 'must be our sole aim.”” 6. Whatever clause, phrase, or word would occasion ambiguity, if not set off by a comma; as, I have seven brave sons, and

daughters."

66

[The limits of this work prevent the insertion of exercises upon the use of the points just explained.

For exercises, recourse must be had to suitable passages from authors, or to the extracts from their works, contained in the various "Readers" in use in our schools. These passages should be dictated to the pupils, and the latter should be required to insert the appropriate points.]

THE DASH.

The Dash is used to denote a change in the construction of a sentence, or in its meaning,—an interruption, or a hesitation.

Examples." Honor-'tis an empty bubble."-"I visited him yesterday-what a sight!"-"If we go-why, then-but we will talk of that anon ;-speak on."-"Have mercy on me! I-I-I'll confess it all."

The dash is also used to set off words and clauses used parenthetically; as, "I have seen thousands-or, more properly, tens of thousands-feeding together on the rich grass of the prairies."

The dash is often placed after other points to give greater prominence to the separation denoted by them.

CURVES.

Curves, or parenthesis marks, are used to enclose a word, a phrase, or a clause, either explanatory or suggested by the main idea, which is introduced in such a way as not to interrupt the connection of the parts of the sentence.

Examples." The disposition of our most eminent and most virtuous men (alas! that it should be so) to keep aloof from public affairs, is a serious fact."—" The bright moon poured in her light on

tomb and monument, on pillar, wall, and arch, and most of all (it seemed to them) upon her quiet grave."

The parts which are enclosed by curves must be punctuated like others; but usually no point is placed before the latter curve, unless the words form a full sentence, or require an exclamation or an interrogation mark.

Curves are not employed so much as formerly; dashes take their place; as, "The great northern kingdoms of Europe-Russia, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway-did not then attract much attention."

BRACKETS.

Brackets are used to enclose words necessary to explain a preceding word or sentence, or to correct an error.

Examples." The finder [James] has been rewarded.”—“ Washington was born on the twenty-second [the eleventh, according to old style] day of February, 1732."—" He said how [that] he would not disappoint us.

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING.

The Apostrophe (") is used to denote the omission of a letter or of letters; as, I'll, for I will;-e'er, for ever.

The apostrophe is also used to denote the possessive case of nouns, to show that certain words are used as verbs; and with s to form the plural of letters, figures, or signs, taken as nouns; as, "Egypt's queen;" -"He if's and but's.' -"He makes his i's and j's alike." The Quotation Marks (" ") are used to enclose the exact words quoted from another speaker or writer.

Example.-"Let these words be remembered: Touch not, taste not, handle not.""

A quotation within a quotation must be enclosed by single marks. The Hyphen (-) is used to unite the words which constitute the parts of a compound word not regarded as a permanent compound; as, path-finder; ox-eyed.

It is also used to unite the words which may be temporarily taken as a single expression; as, "Our ever-to-be-lamented friend.”

It is employed also to mark the division of a word into its syllables; as, in-com-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty.

The Ellipsis Marks (

*** · ), ( ) are used to denote the omission of some letters or words; as, K*** 9, for King; Ld Pn, for Lord Palmerston.

The Caret (A) is used in manuscript to show that something omitted in its proper place may be found above, or in the margin,

The Brace() is used to connect two or more different words or expressions with one common term.

The Ditto, or Double Comma (,, ), is used instead of repeating the word or the words above it.

The Index() points to something special or remarkable.
The Asterism (***) directs attention to a particular passage.
The Section (8) denotes a division of a book.

The Paragraph (T) denotes the beginning of a new subject. This mark is now rarely used in books. The beginning of a new subject is now shown by setting a new line back from the margin.

The Cedilla is a mark placed under the letter c (c), to show that it is to be sounded soft like s; as, façade.

The Tilde is a mark placed over the letter n (ñ), to show that the following vowel sound is to be preceded by that of y; as, cañon.

The Vowel Marks are the following:

The Diæresis (**), placed over the latter of two vowels to denote that they are separated; as, aërial.

The Macron ( - ), placed over a vowel to denote that it has a long sound; as, over.

The Breve (), placed over a vowel to denote that it has a short sound; as, cover.

The Accents are the following:

The Acute(), used to mark an accented syllable; as, ac'cent; and to denote when the voice should rise in tone.

The Grave (), denoting the falling of the voice.

The Circumflex (^), denoting that the voice must both rise and fall in pronouncing the same syllable.

The Asterisk ( * ), the Dagger (†), the Double Dagger ( ‡ ), and the Parallel ( || ), are used as marks of reference; also the Section ( % ), and the Paragraph ( ¶ ),—and small letters and figures, which, when thus used, are called superiors.

For other marks and their uses, dictionaries must be consulted.

CAPITAL LETTERS.

Most words begin with small letters; but the following must commence with capitals :

1. The first word of every sentence.

2. The first word of every line of poetry.

3. Proper names, and words derived from them; as, America, American: Dane, Danish; Winfield Scott; Broadway.

4. All names applied to the Deity; as, God; the Supreme Ruler ; the Holy Spirit; Providence.

5. Common names directly personified; as, "Cease, rude Winter." 6. Words used as titles of office or honor, when prefixed to proper names; as, Chief Justice Chase; General Grant.

7. The first word of a direct quotation; as, "Remember and practise this precept: Love thy neighbor as thyself." "

8. Words or expressions denoting remarkable events, or things long celebrated; as, the Reformation; the Golden Age; the Magna Charta; the Norman Conquest.

9. When books are mentioned, the principal words in their titles; as, Swift's Tale of a Tub.

The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are always capitals.

Title-pages, heads of chapters and pages, side titles, etc., are usually composed wholly of capitals.

FIGURES.

A FIGURE, in grammar, is an intentional departure fim the common mode of spelling, forming, constructing, o applying a word.

CLASSES OF FIGURES.

Figures may be divided into four classes;-Figures of O thography, Figures of Etymology, Figures of Syntax, and Figures of Rhetoric.

FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

A Figure of Orthography is an intentional departure from the common mode of spelling a word.

The figures of orthography are two;-Mimesis and Archaism.

1. Mimesis is an imitation of the false pronunciation of a word by correspondent spelling; as, "Wall, 'twus wus 'n t'other-it nuver stru k onst."

2. Archaism is the spelling of a word according to ancient usage; as, In my tyme my poore father was as diligent to teach me to shote as t. learne anye other thynge, and so I thynke other menne did thy hildren."

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional departure from the common mode of forming a word.

The principal figures of etymology are eight;-Apheresis, Prosthesis, Syncope, Apocope, Paragoge, Diæresis, Synæresis, and

Tmesis.

1. Apheresis is the taking of a letter or of letters from the beginning of a word; as, 'bove, for above; 'gan, for began; 'neath, for beneath. 2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or of letters to a word; as, adown, for down; beloved, for loved.

3. Syncope is the taking of a letter or of letters from the middle of a word; as, e'er, for ever; ev'ry, for every; hap'ning, for happening. 4. Apocope is the taking of a letter or of letters from the end of a word; as, tho', for though; ope, for open; yon, for yonder.

5. Paragoge is the suffixing of a syllable to a word; as, vasty, for vast; withouten, for without.

6. Dieresis is the separating of two vowels which might otherwise form a diphthong; as coöperate, or co-operate; reïncur, or re-incur.

7. Synæresis is the blending or contracting of two syllables or words into one; as, talk'st for talkest; thou'rt, for thou art.

8. Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound word by the insertion of a word; as, To us ward; "On which side soever he turned."

FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional departure from common usage in the grammatical construction of a word. The principal figures of syntax are five;-Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syllepsis, Hyperbaton, and Enallage.

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to complete the sense and construction of other words; as, “Bring (to) me the book;”“I knew (that) he would come.”

Ellipsis applies to all the parts of speech, to phrases, and to clauses. By ellipsis needless repetition is avoided, and language is rendered more pleasing and forcible.

2. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are absolutely necessary to express an idea; as, “I saw it with my own eyes.”—“For the Egyptians, whom ye have seen to-day, ye shall see them no more, for ever."